Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The English word “angel” refers to nonhuman spirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel” mean “messenger” and can refer to one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterly loyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). The messenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).

Messengers sent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were his messengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).

The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah).

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:1619). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2Sam. 23:14–17; 2Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42).

Egypt is one of the earliest ancient civilizations. The first development of writing took place simultaneously in both Egypt and ancient Sumer around 3000 BC.

Ancient Sumer and Egypt were river valley cultures. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia (southeast Iraq), Egypt in the Nile Valley (northeast Africa). The Nile Valley was well suited for long-term growth and cultural success for three reasons. First, the annual flooding of the Nile (July to October) brought sediment and nutrients from up river to the fields of the Nile Valley. The water also washed the salts out of the soil. These brought great fertility to the valley and allowed the same fields to be farmed year after year for millennia without exhausting the land. Second, the Nile provided a central highway for transporting people and goods across Egypt, thus facilitating internal trade and communication. Third, Egypt was surrounded by a buffer zone of desert regions to the east, west, and south, which hindered foreign invasion. Ancient Egyptians called the fertile land of the Nile Valley the “black land” and the desert regions the “red land.” They also divided the land into “upper” and “lower” Egypt. Upper Egypt (from the first cataract northward to Memphis) was in the higher southern elevations of the Nile River (the Nile flows from south to north). Lower Egypt was made up of the Nile Delta region. Only a pharaoh who controlled and unified both could take the epithet “king of upper and lower Egypt.”

Egypt had an ancient and long history, but the following summary will only address Egypt as it comes into contact with biblical history.

First Intermediate period (21342040 BC) and Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC). After the death of PepyII came economic collapse due to drought and falling tax revenues. These led to political collapse, and power was split among many competing factions. This time of instability is known as the First Intermediate period; it ended when the Eleventh Dynasty pharaoh MentuhotepII reunified Egypt and reestablished a strong central government. It is likely around the time of the end of the First Intermediate period (2134–2040 BC) and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC) that Abraham visited Egypt and later Joseph, Jacob, and his family entered Egypt. The famous Beni Hasan tomb painting of this period shows a caravan of Semitic peoples moving into Egypt, wearing multicolored clothing. In this period the position of vizier (prime minister) grew to prominence. One vizier, Amenemhet, succeeded to the throne of Egypt. Joseph filled the role of vizier in the biblical account (Gen. 41:39–40). Also dating from this period are turquoise mines in the Sinai region that have the earliest known Semitic inscription. Written on the mine walls in Proto-Sinaitic, this inscription may be the earliest alphabetic script in existence.

Second Intermediate period (1640–1550 BC). At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt again fell into a fractured political situation with the decline of the pharaoh’s power. A Semitic people, the Hyksos (Egyptian for “foreign rulers” or “shepherd kings”), invaded the Nile Delta region and established their capital at Avaris. The Seventeenth Dynasty continued to rule Upper Egypt in the south while the Hyksos were in power. Although the Israelites were servants of Pharaoh from the beginning (keeping his flocks), they were not enslaved until later. It may have been a Hyksos pharaoh or a New Kingdom pharaoh who enslaved them to hard labor.

New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC). The last king of the Seventeenth (Theban) Dynasty, Kamose, attacked the Hyksos, but it was his successor, Ahmose, who drove them out and reunified Egypt. Ahmose is considered the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It may have been Ahmose or one of his successors who enslaved the Hebrews. During the first half of the New Kingdom, Egypt was at the height of its power and wealth. During this period Egyptians began to call their king “Pharaoh,” meaning “great house.” The Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh ThutmoseIII and his son AmenhotepII are good candidates for an early-date exodus (c. 1446 BC). A later king of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Akhenaten, moved the capital to Amarna and shifted his allegiance from Amun-Re, the sun god, to sole worship of the god Aton (sun-disk). For this reason, many identify him as the first monotheist. Akhenaten may have made this move in order to defund the temples and priestly orders that had grown very wealthy and powerful over time. His reforms did not last, and the worship of Amun-Re was restored by his successor, Tutankhamen. The Nineteenth Dynasty warrior RamessesII is the likely pharaoh of a late-date Exodus (c. 1250 BC).

Third Intermediate period (1069–664 BC). This period was a time of weak and divided government, with capitals in the north and the south. Pharaoh Siamun has been conjectured to be King Solomon’s father-in-law, who conquered Gezer and gave it to Solomon as a dowry (c. 960 BC; 1Kings 9:16). Later, Sheshonq (biblical Shishak), a Libyan pharaoh of the Twenty-second Dynasty, came to the throne and campaigned against Solomon’s son Rehoboam, plundering Jerusalem in the process (1Kings 14:25; 2Chron. 12:2; cf. 1Kings 11:40). The African Cush*te pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (760–664 BC) ruled the north for a little more than a century but failed to defend against the waves of Assyrian conquest in the seventh century BC.

Late Kingdom period (664–525 BC). The Twenty-sixth (Saite) Dynasty (ruling from the Delta city of Sais) reunified Egypt under native Egyptian control. Pharaoh NechoII tried to support a declining Assyria as a buffer against the Babylonian onslaught but was unsuccessful (c. 609 BC). However, in the process Necho killed King Josiah of Judah in battle at Megiddo and placed one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoiakim, as a vassal upon the throne of Judah (2Kings 23:29–35; cf. 2Chron. 35:20–36:8; Jer. 46:2). After the Babylonian destruction of Judah/Jerusalem (587/586 BC) and the murder of their Jewish governor, Gedaliah, a group of Jewish exiles fled to Egypt. This group forced the prophet Jeremiah to go with them to Egypt (Jer. 40:1–43:7). A small group of Jewish exiles eventually found their way to a tiny island in the upper Nile, Elephantine, where they established a temple and community; there they worked as mercenaries.

Persian period (525–332 BC). CambysesII, king of Persia and son of Cyrus the Great, conquered Egypt in 525 BC. His successor, DariusI, ruled Egypt benevolently and resumed the construction of temples and canals. However, Egypt revolted against Persian rule several times, ultimately winning independence in 404 BC with the help of Greek allies. The last native Egyptian pharaoh was NectaneboII, who ruled in 359–343 BC. However, this period of Egyptian independence was short-lived, with Persia reestablishing control in 343 BC.

Hellenistic-Roman period (332–30 BC; 30 BC and beyond). Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC. After Alexander’s death, his general Ptolemy took control of Egypt and ruled as pharaoh. From Alexander’s conquest to the death of Cleopatra, Egyptian rulers were of Greek descent. After Cleopatra’s death (30 BC), Rome annexed Egypt into its empire and governed the country until the fall of the Roman Empire. A large contingent of Jews lived and prospered in the Delta city of Alexandria in this period.

The various Hebrew and Greek words that express the idea of fulfillment occur hundreds of times in the Bible, and the concept often is present even when the specific word is not. At the basic level, fulfillment indicates a relationship between two (or more) things in which the second is said to “fill up” the significance of the first. Frequently this takes the form of a specific promise that is said to be fulfilled when the person, object, or event referred to comes to pass. There are countless examples of this type of fulfillment, some of which even quote the specific promise that is being fulfilled. The seventy years of Babylonian captivity prophesied by Jeremiah (Jer. 29:10) are said to be fulfilled when Cyrus permits the Jews to return to the land (Ezra 1:14). Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1–6) fulfills the promise of a ruler who will shepherd Israel (Mic. 5:2).

But the concept of fulfillment goes beyond specific promises that are then said to be fulfilled in a particular person, object, or event. In the broadest sense of the term, one can say that the NT fulfills what the OT promises. After his resurrection, Jesus reminds his disciples, “Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (Luke 24:44). He then provides a summary of the entire OT message: “The Messiah will suffer and rise from the dead on the third day, and repentance for the forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem” (Luke 24:46–47).

Several kings of the Jews, related by birth, had the name “Herod.” The Herods formed a royal dynasty that flourished during the time of Christ and the early church. The founder of the dynasty was Antipater, who was appointed by Caesar in 47 BC as procurator of Judea. The Herods, being partly Edomite (descended from Esau) as well as loyal servants of Rome, were never fully accepted by their Jewish subjects. The family history was characterized by lust, intrigue, and bloodshed. They opposed the Christian faith, sometimes violently, being responsible for the attempted murder of Jesus (Matt. 2:16), the beheading of John the Baptist (Matt. 14:112), and the execution of the apostle James (Acts 12:2).

(1)HerodI (Herod the Great), son of Antipater, known as King Herod (Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5). He ruled Palestine in the years 37–4 BC with Roman consent. A skillful politician, he managed to retain the favor of Rome by deftly switching allegiances when necessary. A capable ruler in some respects, he engaged in extensive building works. His finest project was the beautification of the temple, which he hoped would win Jewish favor. The rabbis would later say, “Whoever has not seen Herod’s building has not seen anything beautiful.”

His rule, however, was marred by paranoia, suspicion, and cruel jealousy. He had some of his wives and sons killed for suspected plotting. In Matthew’s Gospel he is visited by wise men looking for “one who has been born king of the Jews.” Subsequently, he massacred the male infants of Bethlehem, trying to rid himself of this new, royal challenger (Matt. 2:1–11). Upon his death, his kingdom was divided among three of his sons, Herod Antipas, Herod Archelaus, and Herod Philip.

(2)Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, also known simply as Herod or as Herod the tetrarch (Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19). He was given jurisdiction over Galilee and Perea, which he ruled from 4 BC to AD 39 (Luke 3:1). For this reason, when Pilate heard that Jesus came from Galilee, he sent him to Antipas for questioning (Luke 23:6–12).

He is infamous for his role in the death of John the Baptist, which later haunted him (Matt. 14:1–12; Mark 6:14–29). Jesus referred to him as “that fox,” alluding to his predatory destructiveness for having killed John the Baptist, who criticized him for taking his half brother’s wife, Herodias, in marriage. He also sought to kill Jesus (Luke 13:31–32). Jesus warned the disciples of the yeast of Herod (Mark 8:15). Yeast was a metaphor sometimes used to describe how evil spreads and corrupts the whole person, perhaps a reference to Herod’s lust for Herodias and his murderous opposition to God’s word and Son. (See also Antipas.)

(3)Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–AD 6) and son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:22). (See also Archelaus.)

(4)Herod Philip, son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem; he was tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis in the years 4 BC–AD 34 (Luke 3:1). He rebuilt Paneas and named it “Caesarea Philippi” after the emperor and himself (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27). Apparently, he married his niece SalomeIII, the daughter of Herodias and his half brother Herod son of MariamneII.

(5)Herod (Philip), son of Herod the Great and MariamneII; he was married to Herodias, who left him for his half brother Antipas (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). Though sharing a common name, this is a different son of Herod the Great than the Herod Philip of Luke 3:1.

(6)Herod AgrippaI, grandson of Herod the Great, also called “King Herod” in Scripture (Acts 12:1). At the height of his power (r. AD 37–44), he ruled an area coextensive with that of his grandfather. He persecuted the early church, killing James the brother of John. Encouraged by the Jews, he imprisoned Peter, intending to put him on trial, until an angel of God miraculously intervened to free him. He died prematurely in Caesarea when struck down for not giving glory to God (Acts 12:20–25).

(7)Herod AgrippaII (reigned in Chalcis AD 48–52, in Iturea AD 52–c. 93), the son of Herod AgrippaI. Prompted by the governor Festus, he gave audience to the apostle Paul to make his defense. He rejected Paul’s attempt to persuade him of the truth of the Christian faith (Acts 25:13–27; 26).

Jeremiah is a complex book with many themes. One of the central ideas, however, is covenant. The Bible often uses the idea of a covenant to describe the relationship between God and his people. A covenant is a divinely initiated and defined agreement. God makes promises and calls on his people to observe certain requirements. Research has found that the biblical covenants are close in form and concept to ancient Near Eastern treaties between the kings of superpowers and those of much less powerful nations (vassal treaties). The powerful, sovereign king announces the law to the vassal, and it is accompanied by curses and blessings. If the vassal obeys, then the king gives a reward, but if the vassal disobeys, then the king issues punishment.

There is a series of covenantal relationships between God and his people (Noah [Gen. 9]; Abraham [Gen. 12:13; 15; 17]; Moses [Exod. 19–24]; David [2Sam. 7]), but most relevant for our understanding of Jeremiah is the covenant with Moses as reaffirmed in Deuteronomy. The Mosaic covenant emphasizes law (see Deut. 5–26) and has an extensive section of curses and blessings (Deut. 27–28).

Jeremiah and many of the other prophets may be styled “lawyers of the covenant.” God sends them to his people when they disobey the law. Their job is to warn the people to change their lives and live in conformity with God’s will or else the curses of the covenant will come into effect.

Jeremiah’s oracles focus on warning the people that they are covenant breakers, particularly in the matter of worshiping false gods (Jer. 10–11). The hope is that the people will repent and thus avoid the most extreme punishment. But it is not only the judgment oracles that are related to the covenant; so too are the salvation oracles. In Jer. 31:31–34 the prophet announces that God will replace the old covenant with a new one, which will be more internal, more intense, and more intimate.

(1)The eleventh son of Judah and the first by Jacob’s beloved wife, Rachel (Gen. 30:24; 35:24).

Joseph was Jacob’s favorite, and so Jacob “made an ornate robe for him” (37:3). While shepherding with his brothers, Joseph had a dream indicating that he would one day rise to prominence over them. This was too much for his brothers to bear, and so they decided, after some deliberation, to throw him into a cistern and, rather than kill him, sell him to passing Ishmaelite/Midianite merchants (37:2528).

Upon arriving in Egypt, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, an official of Pharaoh, and then thrown in jail after Potiphar’s wife falsely accused him of making sexual advances (chap. 39). While in jail, he accurately interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh’s cupbearer and baker (chap. 40). Two years later, he was called upon to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams (chap. 41). Joseph’s ability to interpret dreams plus his administrative skills saved Egypt from famine, which resulted in his elevation to being “in charge of the whole land of Egypt” (41:41).

It was the famine that brought Joseph’s family to Egypt to find food, which eventually led to their warm reunion, though not without some testing on Joseph’s part (chaps. 42–45). After Joseph made himself known to his brothers, they reconciled and sent for the elderly Jacob, who was awaiting news in Canaan. Thus, Jacob and his twelve sons lived in Egypt, and their descendants were eventually enslaved by a king “to whom Joseph meant nothing” (Exod. 1:8).

Joseph died in Egypt and was embalmed (Gen. 50:20–26). The exodus generation took his bones out of Egypt (Exod. 13:19), and he was later buried in Shechem (Josh. 24:32).

(2)The husband of Mary, mentioned only by name in Jesus’ birth stories in Matthew and Luke. According to Matt. 1:16, Joseph is a descendant of David, which establishes Jesus’ royal bloodline. Luke’s genealogy (3:23–38) downplays Jesus’ relationship to Joseph. In Matthew, Joseph is a recipient of several divine communications by means of dreams, announcing Mary’s conception (1:18–25) and commanding the flight to Egypt (2:13) and the return to Nazareth (2:19–23). In Luke, Joseph takes Mary to Bethlehem to give birth (2:4–7), presents Jesus in the temple for consecration (2:21–24), and brings Mary and Jesus to Jerusalem for the Passover feast when Jesus is twelve (2:41–52).

(3)A Jew from Arimathea, a secret follower of Jesus and member of the Sanhedrin who did not agree to put Jesus to death (Luke 23:50–51; John 19:38). He asked Pilate for Jesus’ body, wrapped it in linen, and placed it in his own tomb (Matt. 27:57–60). (4)Also known as Barsabbas or Justus, he was one of the two men proposed to take Judas Iscariot’s place among the disciples (Acts 1:23).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances that produce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief and mourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they may occur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam. 13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), or repentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, or both.

The expressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2), wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes and wearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground (2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting on dust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16), singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:1727; 3:32–35), pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair (Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek. 24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7), and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark 5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such as slashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), and the somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

(1)A town in Benjamin (Josh. 18:25), possibly located on the site of the modern city of Er-Ram, five miles north of Jerusalem, or three miles further north at Ramallah. Ramah was located near the cities of Gibeon and Mizpah and close to the eventual border between Israel and Judah. It was a resting place on the road to the north (Judg. 19:13). The judge Deborah held court near Ramah on the road to Bethel (Judg. 4:5).

When King Baasha of Israel invaded Judah, he made Ramah his base, fortifying the city in order to control northern access to Jerusalem (1Kings 15:17). After Baasha was forced to abandon his position, King Asa of Judah dismantled the fortifications and used the materials to strengthen the cities of Geba and Mizpah (15:22). Following the return from exile, some of the Benjamites resettled in the city of Ramah (Neh. 11:33). Rachel’s tomb was said to be near Ramah, and the place is associated with her mourning for her children in Jeremiah’s prophecy (Jer. 31:15). Some scholars believe that Ramah of Benjamin was also the birthplace of Samuel (see #2).

(2)The birthplace and burial site of Samuel (1Sam. 1:19; 25:1), also known as Ramathaim, or possibly Ramathaim Zuphim (1:1 NIV mg.), situated in the hill country of Ephraim. Ramah was Samuel’s home throughout his time as judge over Israel, and he built an altar to God there (7:17). It was at Ramah that the Israelite elders came to Samuel to demand a king (8:45). Later, when David fled from Saul’s house, he went to Ramah to take counsel from Samuel and find refuge from the king.

In the OT, wisdom is a characteristic of someone who attains a high degree of knowledge, technical skill, and experience in a particular domain. It refers to the ability that certain individuals have to use good judgment in running the affairs of state (Joseph in Gen. 41:33; David in 2Sam. 14:20; Solomon in 1Kings 3:9, 12, 28). It can also refer to the navigational skills that sailors use in maneuvering a ship through difficult waters (Ps. 107:27). Furthermore, wisdom includes the particular skills of an artisan (Exod. 31:6; 35:35; 1Chron. 22:15 16). In all these cases, wisdom involves the expertise that a person acquires to accomplish a particular task. In these instances “wisdom” is an ethically neutral term, or at least that dimension is not emphasized. The wise are those who have mastered a certain skill set in their field of expertise.

The uniqueness of the OT wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.) is that it highlights the moral dimension of wisdom. Here “wisdom” refers to developing expertise in negotiating the complexities of life and managing those complexities in a morally responsible way that honors God and benefits both the community and the individual. Although it is difficult to pin down a concise definition, one can gain a better understanding of wisdom by investigating two important dimensions: wisdom as a worldview, and the traits of a person who is considered to be wise.

Who is wise? First, the wise are those involved in a lifelong process of character development. They manifest the virtues of righteousness, justice, and equity (Prov. 1:3; 2:9). The embodiment of these virtues culminates in the description of the woman of noble character at the conclusion of Proverbs (31:10–31). She exhibits self-control, patience, care, diligence, discipline, humility, generosity, honesty, and fear of the Lord (cf. James 3:13–18). She is the epitome of wisdom in its maturity and the model that all should emulate.

Second, the wise know the value of words and how to use them. They know when to speak, what to say, and how to say it (Job 29:21–22; Prov. 15:23; 25:11; Eccles. 3:7; 12:9–10). Wisdom and the wise place a premium on the power of words.

Third, the wise place great importance on relationships and on interaction with others. The wise person is the one who is open to the give-and-take of relationships (Prov. 27:5–6, 17, 19). Such a person develops the humility necessary to receive correction and criticism from others. Hearing criticism and changing wrong behavior are integral to wisdom (3:1–11). The wise appreciate insightful criticism because it helps them live life more productively (15:12). Wisdom is, ultimately, relational.

Fourth, the wise person develops the art of discernment (Prov. 1:2, 4–6). The sage is equipped with the ability to think critically. The very quality of wisdom itself invites the re-forming and rethinking of ideas. Sages are not interested in pat answers (26:4–5). Proverbs 16:1–9 throws a wrench in the conventional cogs of wisdom, claiming that although humans make their plans, God has the final say. Both Job and Ecclesiastes go head to head with conventional beliefs, probing more deeply into the complexities of life and the relationship between human and divine. No easy answers exist here. In contrast, fools do not use their mental faculties. They view wisdom as a commodity, a matter of learning some techniques, accepting certain beliefs, and memorizing a few proverbs (17:16). The wise, however, know that wisdom involves the art of critical thinking and interacting with others.

Fifth, and most fundamental, the wise person takes a God-centered focus toward life. Wisdom literature affirms, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 9:10; cf. Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Eccles. 12:13). That this is the beginning step in the process of gaining wisdom means that one who misses this step can proceed no further along the path to wisdom. The fear of the Lord is to wisdom as the letters of the alphabet are to forming words. The wise gain wisdom by being in relationship with the Lord (Prov. 3:5–8). The fear of the Lord is the beginning as well as the culmination of wisdom.

Wisdom is a highly prized quality, superior to might and power (Prov. 25:15; Eccles. 9:13–16), and one must diligently seek it (Prov. 2:1–5). Yet in the end, wisdom is a gift that only God can give (Prov. 2:6–8; 1Kings 3:9).

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

There were at least two towns called “Bethlehem” (meaning “house of bread”). (1) A town in Zebulun, in the north, about seven miles northwest of Nazareth (Josh. 19:15).

(2) The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah). With the possible exception of the story of the judge Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10), most references to Bethlehem are to the town in Judah, which still exists.

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1 Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1 Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2 Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2 Sam. 23:14–17; 2 Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42). Constantine the Great, the fourth-century Roman emperor, built a church above a cave in Bethlehem, traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Jesus. Today the city boasts a population of about thirty thousand and is one of the most visited sites in Israel, especially during the Christmas season, when thousands of Christians make a pilgrimage to the traditional place of Jesus’ birth.

Several kings of the Jews, related by birth, had the name“Herod.” The Herods formed a royal dynasty thatflourished during the time of Christ and the early church. Thefounder of the dynasty was Antipater, who was appointed by Caesar in47 BC as procurator of Judea. The Herods, being partly Edomite(descended from Esau) as well as loyal servants of Rome, were neverfully accepted by their Jewish subjects. The family history wascharacterized by lust, intrigue, and bloodshed. They opposed theChristian faith, sometimes violently, being responsible for theattempted murder of Jesus (Matt. 2:16), the beheading of John theBaptist (Matt. 14:1–12), and the execution of the apostle James(Acts 12:2).

(1)Herod I (Herod the Great), son of Antipater, known as King Herod(Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5). He ruled Palestine in the years 37–4 BCwith Roman consent. A skillful politician, he managed to retain thefavor of Rome by deftly switching allegiances when necessary. Acapable ruler in some respects, he engaged in extensive buildingworks. His finest project was the beautification of the temple, whichhe hoped would win Jewish favor. The rabbis would later say, “Whoeverhas not seen Herod’s building has not seen anything beautiful.”

Hisrule, however, was marred by paranoia, suspicion, and cruel jealousy.He had some of his wives and sons killed for suspected plotting. InMatthew’s Gospel he is visited by wise men looking for “onewho has been born king of the Jews.” Subsequently, he massacredthe male infants of Bethlehem, trying to rid himself of this new,royal challenger (Matt. 2:1–11). Upon his death, his kingdomwas divided among three of his sons, Herod Antipas, Herod Archelaus,and Herod Philip.

(2)Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, also known simply as Herod oras Herod the tetrarch (Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19). He was givenjurisdiction over Galilee and Perea, which he ruled from 4 BC to AD39 (Luke 3:1). For this reason, when Pilate heard that Jesus camefrom Galilee, he sent him to Antipas for questioning (Luke 23:6–12).

Heis infamous for his role in the death of John the Baptist, whichlater haunted him (Matt. 14:1–12; Mark 6:14–29). Jesusreferred to him as “that fox,” alluding to his predatorydestructiveness for having killed John the Baptist, who criticizedhim for taking his half brother’s wife, Herodias, in marriage.He also sought to kill Jesus (Luke 13:31–32). Jesus warned thedisciples of the yeast of Herod (Mark 8:15). Yeast was a metaphorsometimes used to describe how evil spreads and corrupts the wholeperson, perhaps a reference to Herod’s lust for Herodias andhis murderous opposition to God’s word and Son. (See alsoAntipas.)

(3)Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–AD6) and son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:22). (See also Archelaus.)

(4)Herod Philip, son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem; hewas tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis in the years 4 BC–AD 34(Luke 3:1). He rebuilt Paneas and named it “Caesarea Philippi”after the emperor and himself (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27). Apparently,he married his niece SalomeIII, the daughter of Herodias andhis half brother Herod son of MariamneII.

(5)Herod (Philip), son of Herod the Great and MariamneII, he wasmarried to Herodias, who left him for his half brother Antipas (Matt.14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). Though sharing a common name, this is adifferent son of Herod the Great than the Herod Philip of Luke 3:1.

(6)Herod Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great, also called “KingHerod” in Scripture (Acts 12:1). At the height of his power (r.AD 37–44), he ruled an area coextensive with that of hisgrandfather. He persecuted the early church, killing James thebrother of John. Encouraged by the Jews, he imprisoned Peter,intending to put him on trial, until an angel of God miraculouslyintervened to free him. He died prematurely in Caesarea when struckdown for not giving glory to God (Acts 12:20–25).

(7)Herod Agrippa II (reigned in Chalcis AD 48–52, in Iturea AD52–c. 93), the son of Herod AgrippaI. Prompted by thegovernor Festus, he gave audience to the apostle Paul to make hisdefense. He rejected Paul’s attempt to persuade him of thetruth of the Christian faith (Acts 25:13–27; 26).

According to Matt. 2:1–12, “Magi from the east”visited Jesus after his birth. It is unclear how old Jesus was atthis time, and some have proposed that the visit occurred as late ashis second year, based on Herod’s order to kill all the malechildren in Bethlehem under the age of two (Matt. 2:16). Thetradition that the visit occurred shortly after Jesus’ birth(as reflected in the celebration of Epiphany on January 6) and theartistic tradition of depicting the magi alongside the shepherds ofLuke 2:8–20 cannot be confirmed from the biblical accounts. Themagi visited Jesus in a house (Matt. 2:11), not in an inn or stable(cf. Luke 2:7). The magi appear only in Matt. 2:1–12, and theshepherds only in Luke 2:8–20. The contrasting stories of magiand shepherds probably represent the distinct theological interestsof Matthew and Luke. The story of the magi and their gifts recallsPs. 72:10; Isa.60:6.

Theword “magi” suggests neither wise philosophers in theGreco-Roman sense nor the kings of later artistic depictions, butrather the sages of Eastern wisdom. Whoever they were, the magi wereobservers of the heavens. On the basis of Matthew’s portrayalof the magi’s knowledge of Hebrew Scripture (Matt. 2:5–6),some have suggested that the magi were Jews of Mesopotamia. Thenumber and names of the magi are not mentioned in Matthew, buttradition has assigned them both names (Melchior, Caspar, Balthasar)and number. The tradition of there being three wise men perhaps isderived from the three gifts mentioned in Matt. 2:11, but thisinference probably is not intended by the evangelist.

Elsewherein the NT, the Greek noun magos and the related verb mageuō havethe negative connotation of sorcery and magic (Acts 8:9–11;13:6, 8).

Several kings of the Jews, related by birth, had the name“Herod.” The Herods formed a royal dynasty thatflourished during the time of Christ and the early church. Thefounder of the dynasty was Antipater, who was appointed by Caesar in47 BC as procurator of Judea. The Herods, being partly Edomite(descended from Esau) as well as loyal servants of Rome, were neverfully accepted by their Jewish subjects. The family history wascharacterized by lust, intrigue, and bloodshed. They opposed theChristian faith, sometimes violently, being responsible for theattempted murder of Jesus (Matt. 2:16), the beheading of John theBaptist (Matt. 14:1–12), and the execution of the apostle James(Acts 12:2).

(1)Herod I (Herod the Great), son of Antipater, known as King Herod(Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5). He ruled Palestine in the years 37–4 BCwith Roman consent. A skillful politician, he managed to retain thefavor of Rome by deftly switching allegiances when necessary. Acapable ruler in some respects, he engaged in extensive buildingworks. His finest project was the beautification of the temple, whichhe hoped would win Jewish favor. The rabbis would later say, “Whoeverhas not seen Herod’s building has not seen anything beautiful.”

Hisrule, however, was marred by paranoia, suspicion, and cruel jealousy.He had some of his wives and sons killed for suspected plotting. InMatthew’s Gospel he is visited by wise men looking for “onewho has been born king of the Jews.” Subsequently, he massacredthe male infants of Bethlehem, trying to rid himself of this new,royal challenger (Matt. 2:1–11). Upon his death, his kingdomwas divided among three of his sons, Herod Antipas, Herod Archelaus,and Herod Philip.

(2)Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, also known simply as Herod oras Herod the tetrarch (Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19). He was givenjurisdiction over Galilee and Perea, which he ruled from 4 BC to AD39 (Luke 3:1). For this reason, when Pilate heard that Jesus camefrom Galilee, he sent him to Antipas for questioning (Luke 23:6–12).

Heis infamous for his role in the death of John the Baptist, whichlater haunted him (Matt. 14:1–12; Mark 6:14–29). Jesusreferred to him as “that fox,” alluding to his predatorydestructiveness for having killed John the Baptist, who criticizedhim for taking his half brother’s wife, Herodias, in marriage.He also sought to kill Jesus (Luke 13:31–32). Jesus warned thedisciples of the yeast of Herod (Mark 8:15). Yeast was a metaphorsometimes used to describe how evil spreads and corrupts the wholeperson, perhaps a reference to Herod’s lust for Herodias andhis murderous opposition to God’s word and Son. (See alsoAntipas.)

(3)Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–AD6) and son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:22). (See also Archelaus.)

(4)Herod Philip, son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem; hewas tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis in the years 4 BC–AD 34(Luke 3:1). He rebuilt Paneas and named it “Caesarea Philippi”after the emperor and himself (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27). Apparently,he married his niece SalomeIII, the daughter of Herodias andhis half brother Herod son of MariamneII.

(5)Herod (Philip), son of Herod the Great and MariamneII, he wasmarried to Herodias, who left him for his half brother Antipas (Matt.14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). Though sharing a common name, this is adifferent son of Herod the Great than the Herod Philip of Luke 3:1.

(6)Herod Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great, also called “KingHerod” in Scripture (Acts 12:1). At the height of his power (r.AD 37–44), he ruled an area coextensive with that of hisgrandfather. He persecuted the early church, killing James thebrother of John. Encouraged by the Jews, he imprisoned Peter,intending to put him on trial, until an angel of God miraculouslyintervened to free him. He died prematurely in Caesarea when struckdown for not giving glory to God (Acts 12:20–25).

(7)Herod Agrippa II (reigned in Chalcis AD 48–52, in Iturea AD52–c. 93), the son of Herod AgrippaI. Prompted by thegovernor Festus, he gave audience to the apostle Paul to make hisdefense. He rejected Paul’s attempt to persuade him of thetruth of the Christian faith (Acts 25:13–27; 26).

The word “apocalypse” means “revelation.”It is used in Rev. 1:1 to identify what follows as information thatwould otherwise be known only in heaven. “Apocalyptic”therefore refers to uncovering something that is hidden—revealingsecrets. It focuses on the gracious acts of God whereby he informshis servants of his plans and purposes about what is happening andwill happen on earth. Scholars have identified those texts thatresemble the form of the book of Revelation as “apocalypticl*terature,” including the visions of Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel,and Zechariah.

Apocalyptictexts also appear outside of the Bible, although many of them areinspired by biblical accounts. The record of Enoch’s journeyinto the heavens (Gen. 5:24) stimulated the imagination of manyduring the Second Temple period, resulting in the production of alarge number of apocalyptic works purporting to record what Enochlearned while in the heavens. These then formed the basis for adistinctive, and ultimately misguided, interpretation of contemporaryJewish experience (see, e.g., 1 Enoch, Jubilees). The popularityof apocalyptic literature grew significantly after the appearance ofJohn’s Revelation, particularly in later gnostic literature andthe works of various forms of Jewish mysticism.

Thegenre of apocalyptic literature.Forthere to be apocalyptic literature, some things must be accepted astrue: God exists and is in sovereign control over what happens onearth; God has a plan, and humankind cannot know anything of thatplan unless it be revealed. This literature claims to be the resultof a gracious act of God. It may be delivered through a vision of Godhimself. Alternately, it might involve seeing things in the heavenseither as a vision or as a guided tour.

God’srevelation occurred in many ways on many occasions (Heb. 1:1–2).The entire Bible is, in this sense, an apocalypse—a revelation.Some forms of this revelation, however, are easier to understand thanothers.

Asa literary form, apocalyptic literature might best be described asverbal cartoons. The images that are so graphically portrayed wouldhave had, for the original readers, something of the instant impactthat a political cartoon might have on us today. In order tounderstand such images, one must be familiar with the symbols beingused. The cartoons and posters from the two World Wars—in whichanimals such as the lion of England, the Russian bear, the Uncle Samcharacter, and bestial monsters depicted the enemy at the time—area sufficient example to shed light on how the original readers wouldhave read these biblical works. To understand individual picturessuch as the beast of Rev. 13 or the four-headed leopard of Dan. 7,one had to know something of the specific historical background.

Earlierimages could be adapted and reapplied. So, for example, Joseph’svision of his family as the sun, moon, and stars (Gen. 37:9) is usedto identify the woman of Rev. 12:1 as the personification of thenation of Israel—the line from which the Savior would come.

God’srevelation to his people.Apocalyptic literature functions in much the same way that Jesus usedhis parables (Matt. 13:11). It is often used in situations whereGod’s people appear to be under physical threat. The symbolsand the patterns used enable those on the inside to follow what ishappening while leaving those on the outside none the wiser. Theability of God’s people to understand the revelation identifiesand discriminates them from God’s enemies, who appear confused.

Apocalypticl*terature is not always about the future, let alone about the end ofthe world. Mostly it is designed to enable the believer to see pastthe confusions and fears of present experience, and to be remindedthat God is in control and that everything is going according to hisplans and purposes. God’s plans may include calling upon hispeople to face a range of challenges or to suffer persecution. Thesevisions enable believers to see meaning and purpose in theseexperiences and to keep their focus faithfully on God.

Thebook of Job offers some insight into the nature of apocalypticl*terature, even though it is not usually regarded as such. Thenarrator (without explaining how he knows these things) begins byinforming the reader of the events that transpired in God’sheavenly court. This enables the reader (unlike Job or his friends)to put Job’s experience in proper context. Eliphaz’schallenge then has powerful irony when he asks Job, “Do youlisten in on God’s council? Do you have a monopoly on wisdom?”(15:8). The resolution of their deliberations is made possible onlywhen God comes to earth in visible form and reveals his judgment onthe matter. This is designed to evoke not a blind faith but aninformed faithfulness that allows for the reality of God’ssuperior wisdom and his right to determine all things for his glory.

Whenthe king had a dream in Gen. 41:15–16 (cf. Dan. 2:27–28),the point is made that no one can discover the mind of God. However,God has graciously revealed his plans to his servants, who can thenexplain them to a world that lives in darkness and ignorance of thesethings.

Theone who received such revelations often needs an interpreting angel(Dan. 7:16; Zech. 1:9; cf. Gen. 28:10–17; Exod. 3:1–6).The seer, like the reader, is initially confused. The interpretingangel answers the seer’s questions, and the reader can in turnunderstand what is happening.

Understandingapocalyptic literature.Given the historical distance between the modern reader and theoriginal authors of the biblical apocalyptic texts, we might betempted to think that they cannot be understood with any certainty.They are nonetheless God’s revelation to his people and weregiven with the intention that they be understood. Comprehending anapocalyptic vision requires us to search the Scriptures to see howthese symbols and patterns were interpreted, and then to see how theyare again used to give us some insight into God’s power, grace,and calling upon his people in each age.

Forexample, the beasts representing four successive kingdoms (Dan.7:1–7, 15–23) later are redrawn into a composite symbolof any contemporary human power operating under Satan’s rule(Rev. 13:1–3). The similarities between Babylon and Romeidentified both as agents of Satan’s regime; the connectionthen became an apocalyptic accusation (1 Pet. 5:13) offeringassurance to God’s people. Herod’s attempt to kill Jesus(Matt. 2:16) follows the pattern of Pharaoh’s attempt on Israel(Exod. 1–2), so the picture of Satan as the red dragonattacking the woman giving birth identifies the one behind Herod’sactions while pointing to the God who brought his people out of Egyptas the one who will save those who put their trust in Jesus.

A person who studies the stars and their supposed effect onhuman personality and history. Such individuals were well known inboth Mesopotamia and Egypt, though the former is more represented inthe biblical texts.

Inseveral places the OT prophets either ridicule or attack astrologersand their practice (Isa. 47:13; Dan. 2:27; 4:7; 5:7, 11; Amos 5:26),and the practice is strictly forbidden in the law codes (Deut. 4:19).Although there are several texts that may apply to astrology in theNT, the only explicit mention of the practice is in connection withthe magi (Matt. 2) and Simon, Bar-jesus, and Elymas (Acts 8:9; 13:6,8). However, in light of admonitions against astrology and the factthat it is an affront to faith in God, the birth narrative of Jesusshould not be read as an approval of the practice but rather as anextraordinary event in which the heavens themselves proclaim thecoming of the one born “king of the Jews” (Matt. 2:2).

There were at least two towns called “Bethlehem” (meaning “house of bread”). (1) A town in Zebulun, in the north, about seven miles northwest of Nazareth (Josh. 19:15).

(2) The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah). With the possible exception of the story of the judge Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10), most references to Bethlehem are to the town in Judah, which still exists.

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1 Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1 Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2 Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2 Sam. 23:14–17; 2 Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:6).

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42). Constantine the Great, the fourth-century Roman emperor, built a church above a cave in Bethlehem, traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Jesus. Today the city boasts a population of about thirty thousand and is one of the most visited sites in Israel, especially during the Christmas season, when thousands of Christians make a pilgrimage to the traditional place of Jesus’ birth.

“Go marry a prostitute” are the first words thatthe prophet Hosea hears from God in the book of Hosea (1:2 NET). Histragic marriage with Gomer provides an analogy for the relationshipof God with his people Israel. God loves, confronts, pleads, becomesangry, and seeks reconciliation in this book containing words ofjudgment as well as hope.

Thebook of Hosea is one of the twelve Minor Prophets, but among thesebooks Hosea is preeminent. It is the longest and appears firstcanonically, and it was one of the first of all the prophetic booksto be written down. The emotive poetry depicting God’sheartbreak over the trauma of his broken relationship with his peopleis hardly matched anywhere else in Scripture.

HistoricalBackground

Thefirst verse sets the book into the reigns of JeroboamII ofIsrael (784–748 BC) and Uzziah (769–733 BC), Jotham(758–743 BC), Ahaz (733–727 BC), and Hezekiah (727–698BC) of Judah. It is difficult to pinpoint when it was during thereign of JeroboamII that Hosea began his ministry or how farinto the reign of Hezekiah he served. Scholars generally date Hosea’sministry between 760 and 720BC.

DuringJeroboam’s reign, Israel expanded its borders (2Kings14:25, 28) due to the relative weakness of its two traditionalnorthern enemies, Assyria and Aram. This expansion led to economicprosperity for the upper classes but oppression for the lowerclasses, which was condemned by the prophet Amos. Shortly after thedeath of Jeroboam, Tiglath-pileserIII came to the throne ofAssyria in 744 BC, and as Assyrian influence began to increase inIsrael, political stability for the nation declined. The reigns ofIsrael’s final rulers were characterized by chaos, as six kingsreigned over Israel in less than one generation (2Kings15:8–31; 17:1–6). Jeroboam’s son Zechariah waskilled by Shallum, who was killed by Menahem, who was succeeded byhis son Pekahiah, who was killed by Pekah, who was killed by Hoshea,who was exiled by Assyria.

Hosea’soracles generally target the northern kingdom, with over fortyreferences to “Israel” scattered throughout the book(e.g., 1:4–6), but the tribe of Ephraim is also mentioned overthirty times (e.g., 4:17; 5:3, 5). As the most influential northerntribe, Ephraim is often used synonymously for Israel, but some of thereferences to Ephraim may be due to the fact that after Assyriaconquered and exiled most of Israel in 733 BC, Ephraim was all thatremained until its destruction in 722BC.

Outline

I.Historical Setting (1:1)

II.Hosea’s Family (1:2–2:1)

III.God’s Family (2:2–23)

IV.God Calls Hosea to Bring Gomer Back (3:1–5)

V.The First Set of Messages (4:1–11:11)

VI.The Second Set of Messages (11:12–14:9)

Message

Themessage of the book of Hosea is God’s; his voice dominates thebook, whether he is speaking to the prophet or to the entire nation.While markers of God’s speech are concentrated in the firstthree chapters (1:2, 4, 6, 9; 2:1, 13, 16, 21; 3:1), clearly God isspeaking in most of the remainder of the book (4:1; 11:11). Hosea’sfirst-person perspective appears explicitly only as he narrates howGod has told him to go and bring back his wife, Gomer (3:1–5).Hosea may be speaking as the nation is called to return to God(6:1–3; 14:1–3), or these calls may be coming from thepeople. God also uses quotes from the people to illustrate his points(8:2; 9:7; 10:3).

God’sinitial commission to Hosea to marry the prostitute Gomer serves asthe frame on which to hang the content of the book. God’sprimary message is that the people of Israel have been unfaithful tothe covenant that they had initially established at Sinai after hehad delivered them from enslavement in Egypt. God had said that hewould be their God, and Israel would be his people (Exod. 6:7), sothey had made a covenant that the people promised to obey (24:1–8).Just as Hosea’s heart has been broken by the unfaithfulness ofhis wife, God has been devastated by Israel’s adulterousbehavior. Gomer gives birth to three children: Jezreel (“GodSows”), Lo-Ruhamah (“Not Pitied”), and Lo-Ammi(“Not My People”). The name of each child hassignificance in the book: “Jezreel” because God is goingto judge Jeroboam’s house for the blood shed by hisgreat-grandfather Jehu in the valley of Jezreel (see 2Kings9:36–37; 10:6–7, 11); “Not Pitied” becauseGod will no longer show mercy to the nation; “Not My People”because he is no longer their God and they are no longer his people.The themes of sowing (Hos. 2:23; 8:7; 10:12), God showing pity (2:1,4, 23; 14:3), and Israel as the people of God (2:1, 23; 4:6, 8, 12;6:11; 11:7) reappear throughout the book.

Thebook cycles through patterns of accusation, punishment, and hope. Godaccuses his people of being unfaithful to their covenant. Thisunfaithfulness takes two primary forms: worship of foreign idols andreliance on foreign nations. Despite their commitment to follow God’slaws, they have blatantly broken the first two commandments: have noother gods, and make no idols (Exod. 20:3–4). The first rulerof the northern kingdom of Israel, JeroboamI, had constructedtwo calves of gold, one in Dan and one in Bethel (1Kings12:25–33), similar to the one made by Aaron in the wilderness(Exod. 32:4). JeroboamI’s golden calves have survivedbeyond the reign of JeroboamII and contributed to Israeliteapostasy during the period of the entire northern monarchy. The bookof Hosea specifically condemns calf worship (8:5–6; 10:5),which even took the form of kissing the calves (13:2). Israel’sidolatry also involved consulting blocks of wood instead of God(4:12), joining themselves to idols (4:17), constructing idols ofsilver and gold (8:4), and sacrificing to idols (10:5).

BecauseGod wants Israel to be exclusively committed to him, he has forbiddenthem from making treaties with other nations (Exod. 34:12, 15; Deut.7:2; 23:6). The book of Hosea describes their disobedience to thiscommand in their dealings with Assyria and Egypt. God accuses them ofdepending on Assyria (Hos. 5:13; 7:11; 8:9; 12:1) and declares thatthe calf they worship will be exiled to Assyria (10:6), and Assyriawill become their king (11:5). God reminds Israel of the Egyptiandeliverance in the past (2:15; 11:1; 12:13; 13:4), he condemns theirreliance on Egypt in the present (7:11, 16; 12:1), and he proclaimsthat they will return to Egypt in the future (8:13; 9:3, 6; 11:5).The “return to Egypt” should be interpreted notgeographically but figuratively, as a return to bondage and exile,which will be performed by Assyria first in 733 BC and finally in722BC.

Israel’ssins provoke God’s anger (5:10; 8:5; 13:11) and prompt him todeclare that he will punish his people (1:4; 2:13; 4:9; 5:2, 9; 8:13;9:7, 9; 10:10). The punishment sent by God specifically targetsIsrael’s king, though it is difficult to be certain which one.Jehu’s house is the subject of the first royal condemnation(1:4–5), which may refer to the assassination of Zechariah,JeroboamII’s son (2Kings 15:8–10). The kingis called to listen to the judgment because it pertains to him (Hos.5:1). Some of Israel’s kings have already fallen (7:7), whichmay refer to the period of monarchical instability after JeroboamII.Eventually, Israel’s king will be completely cut off (3:4;10:3, 7, 15; 13:10), which happened in 722 BC, when Assyria destroyedthe capital Samaria.

Inthe midst of accusation and punishment, the book also includes wordsof hope, specifically that Israel will return to its God, and theirrelationship will be restored. Three times the people are called toreturn to God: in the beginning (2:14–23), in the middle(6:1–3), and at the end of the book (14:1–3). God viewshis people not only as his wife but also as his children (11:1–4),and he promises that because of his compassion his anger will cease(11:8–9) and he will lead his children as they return to theirhomes (11:11). In a surprising twist, immediately after telling Hoseato give the three children names signifying judgment (1:4–9),God declares that Israel will be called the “children of theliving God,” and the children’s names change to “Ammi”(“My People”) and “Ruhamah” (“Pity”)(1:10–2:1 NET). God also promises that the people of Israelwill be as numerous as the sand of the seashore (1:10), recalling hispromise to Abraham (Gen.22:17).

Bothparental and marital imagery from the book of Hosea appear elsewherein Scripture. While in Hosea the line “out of Egypt I called myson” (11:1) refers to God bringing his “children”out of Egyptian bondage, Matthew shows how it also describes earlyevents in Jesus’ life as his family fled to Egypt (Matt. 2:15).Jeremiah graphically describes the sins of Judah as adultery andfaithlessness (Jer. 3:1–25). Paul compares the relationshipbetween a husband and a wife to that of Christ and the church (Eph.5:23–24). The book of Revelation concludes by describing howthe residents of the new Jerusalem will be adorned like a bride forher husband, and they will be his people and he will be their God(Rev. 21:2–9; 22:17).

The first of the Major Prophets in the canon, the book of Isaiah is one of the longest books in the Bible. This, coupled with the NT’s frequent use of Isaiah, has contributed to the book’s great importance in Christian tradition. Isaiah contains some of the most memorable passages in Scripture, with its majestic poetry and evocative sermons making it a literary masterpiece. Nevertheless, it has also been characterized as a difficult book to comprehend and make sense of as a whole because the connections between different paragraphs and sections appear to be haphazard at times and are difficult to understand. However, some knowledge of the way the book was formed can aid in interpretation.

Authorship

The authorship of Isaiah has been one of the most debated issues in biblical interpretation. Ancient tradition credited the eighth-century BC prophet Isaiah with the entire sixty-six chapters. However, an early Jewish tradition in the Talmud claims that “the men of Hezekiah” compiled Isaiah, showing their awareness that the book did not come entirely from Isaiah.

Literary evidence. Isaiah son of Amoz is referred to as author in three sections of the book (1:1; 2:1; 13:1) and is featured in both third-person (chaps. 7; 20; 36–39) and first-person (chaps. 6; 8) narratives. However, chapters 40–66 have no such headings and do not even mention Isaiah. While references to Isaiah as author in specific sections may suggest that he actually did write the whole book, they may also indicate that he did not write sections that are not ascribed to him. Similarly, historical narratives referring to the prophet in the third person may suggest that someone else wrote them, although the intimate information in them (e.g., 7:3) could point to Isaianic authorship.

Another possible indication of multiple authorship is the marked difference in literary style and vocabulary found in different sections of Isaiah. While such judgments are quite subjective, both sides of the authorship debate acknowledge these stylistic differences.

Historical settings. The debate regarding the authorship of Isaiah really centers on the diverse historical settings within different sections of the book. Chapters 1–39 clearly are set during the late eighth century BC, the period when Assyria is threatening Judah. Assyria is frequently mentioned (e.g., 7:17; 8:4; 10:12; 11:11; 19:23; 20:1; 27:13; 36:1), as are Judean kings (e.g., 1:1; 6:1; 7:1; 14:28; 36:1) and the prophet Isaiah himself (e.g., 1:1; 2:1; 13:1; 20:2; 37:5).

In contrast, the historical setting of chapters 40–55 is not eighth-century BC Judah. Israel is described as in captivity and Jerusalem is referred to as ruined and deserted (44:26, 28; 52:9); there is frequent allusion to the sufferings of the exile (42:22, 25; 43:28; 47:6; 51:17; 52:5); and the coming return from exile is described as close at hand (40:2; 46:13; 48:20). Furthermore, in chapters 40–55 Babylon is Israel’s enemy, even though in Isaiah’s day they were allies. Also, Cyrus the Great, the Persian king who conquered Babylon in 539 BC (ending the exile), is mentioned with no introduction or explanation (44:28; 45:1), even though he lived 150 years after Isaiah. In sum, chapters 40–55 appear to be addressed to Judeans in Babylonian exile.

Conversely, chapters 56–66 appear to come from yet another historical period. Unlike in chapters 40–55, where the temple was destroyed and out of operation, in chapters 56–66 the temple (66:6), along with sacrifices (56:7; 66:3), offerings (57:6; 65:3; 66:3), and Sabbaths (56:2; 58:13; 66:23), is referred to. Also, Jerusalem and its walls are standing (62:6), unlike in chapters 40–55, where it is predicted that Jerusalem will be rebuilt (44:26). This seems to indicate that it addresses those who have returned to Jerusalem after the exile.

This evidence suggests that the book of Isaiah was written by several authors from different time periods. Alternatively, these diverse historical settings could be explained by supposing that Isaiah spoke to audiences in the distant future through divine inspiration. While skeptical scholars holding antisupernatural worldviews have denied this possibility, those who believe in an almighty God believe that he can reveal the distant future to his prophets. However, the question is whether that is in fact the case with Isaiah. It is significant that in chapters 40–55 Babylonian oppression is not predicted as something to come in the future but rather is presupposed as the present conditions under which the writer is living—only the release from exile is predicted. Logically, it would seem that the author lived in the situation that he presupposes and before the situation that he predicts.

Arguments for the unity of Isaiah. Some scholars still hold to the unity of Isaiah on the following grounds: (1)no ancient manuscripts show that the book ever existed in another form; (2)differences in style and vocabulary can be explained by different subject matter (besides which, the title “Holy One of Israel” unites all sections of Isaiah, as it is used thirteen times in chapters 1–39, sixteen times in chapters 40–66, and only seven times in the rest of the Bible); (3)it seems unlikely that an author as great as the one who wrote chapters 40–55 should remain anonymous; and (4)although it is logical to assume that a prophet is contemporary with what he presupposes, once a prophet makes a prediction, that prediction can become a presupposition for another prediction. Therefore, Isaiah’s prediction of exile in 39:6–7 could become the basis or presupposition on which he continued to prophesy the end to the exile.

However, these arguments are not compelling. Although no manuscripts attest to earlier versions of the book, we possess so few manuscripts from before the time of Christ (and none dating to the time during which the three sections of Isaiah are thought to have been combined) that this is insignificant. Also, the differences in subject matter do not seem great enough to explain the very different style and language in the various sections. Regarding the unlikelihood that the writer of chapters 40–55 could remain anonymous, the fact is that many biblical books are indeed anonymous (e.g., Judges, 1–2Kings, 1–2Chronicles). However, most significant are the different historical settings of the major sections of Isaiah. If Isaiah was addressing an audience in the distant future, not only would it be a situation unparalleled in the biblical prophets, but also the message would have been largely unintelligible to Isaiah’s contemporaries (especially references to Cyrus). Moreover, the text does not claim to predict these situations but only presupposes them. However, the reality of prophetic inspiration is underscored, as a later author predicts not only the end of the exile but also a suffering messiah.

First, Second, and Third Isaiah. For convenience (and not to imply that each author was named “Isaiah”), the three major sections are often referred to as First Isaiah (chaps. 1–39), Second Isaiah (chaps. 40–55), and Third Isaiah (chaps. 56–66). In light of the purposeful connections between the different sections, it is probable that the book was the product of a “school” of Isaiah’s disciples (cf. 8:16) who collected and organized Isaiah’s words and added to them over a long period of time.

In the end, the involvement of multiple authors in the composition of Isaiah does not undermine its authority as Scripture. Its authority derives not from the namesake prophet but rather from God, who inspired its writing (2Tim. 3:16).

Plan of the Book

Isaiah has a literary structure similar to that of Ezekiel, Zephaniah, Joel, and the Greek translation of Jeremiah. The first section is concerned with judgment on Israel (chaps. 1–12), the second with judgment on foreign nations (chaps. 13–23), and the third records prophecies of hope and salvation (chaps. 24–27). This structure purposefully places hopeful oracles of comfort after the judgment oracles. Some view the entire book of Isaiah as following this pattern (chaps. 1–12, judgment on Israel; chaps. 13–35, judgment on other nations; chaps. 40–66, oracles of comfort). However, both of these schemes are somewhat forced, since each section is slightly mixed (there are oracles of salvation in chaps. 1–12, prophecies against Judah in chaps. 13–23, and judgment oracles in chaps. 56–66). However, in broad outline it is helpful to recognize this structure.

Outline

I. Judgment on Judah (1–12)

II. Judgment on the Nations (13–27)

III. Warnings to Trust in the Lord (28–35)

IV. The Assyrian Crisis (36–39)

V. The Second Exodus (40–48)

VI. The Restoration of Jerusalem (49–55)

VII. The Earthly and New Jerusalem (56–66)

First Isaiah (Isa. 1–39)

Key historical events. This section of Isaiah comes from the period when the nation of Assyria was aggressively expanding its territory and terrorizing weaker nations, such as Israel and Judah. Two key historical events form the background for many oracles in chapters 1–39 and are the prominent focus there: the Syro-Ephraimite war of 734 BC and the 701 BC Assyrian invasion of Judah.

The Syro-Ephraimite war. The nations of Aram (Syria) and Israel (Ephraim) allied together against Assyria and tried to coerce Judah into joining them. They planned to replace King Ahaz with a king of their choice (7:6), which would end the Davidic dynasty. In the end, Ahaz rejected Isaiah’s advice to simply trust God (7:9) and instead appealed to the king of Assyria for aid. The Assyrians conquered Aram (732 BC) and Israel (722 BC) and assimilated them into the Assyrian empire. Judah survived but had to pay tribute to Assyria from that point onward.

The Assyrian invasion of Judah. The Assyrian king Sennacherib invaded Judah when Hezekiah, Ahaz’s son, reigned in Jerusalem. The invasion devastated Judah; however, when Jerusalem was threatened, Hezekiah, in contrast to his father, trusted God to save them, and the Assyrian army suffered massive losses and failed to take Jerusalem (37:36).

Structure and themes. The structure of chapters 1–39 is quite complex. However, the prophecies and historical narratives concerned with Isaiah’s day are roughly in chronological order (e.g., prophecies and events occurring during the reign of King Ahaz [6:1–8:22] precede those during Hezekiah’s reign [36:1–39:8]). The structure of these chapters alternates between threat and promise (e.g., chap. 1= threat; 2:1–4= promise of hope; 2:5–4:1= threat; 4:2–6= promise of hope). Analogously, the main themes of these chapters alternate between threat and promise.

Holiness. A major theme of Isaiah is God’s holiness, as evidenced in its favorite title for the Lord, “Holy One of Israel.” While the original idea underlying holiness was physical separation and did not have an ethical dimension (e.g., temple prostitutes in the ancient Near East were called “holy women”), a different concept of holiness emerges in chapter 6, the account of Isaiah’s call. Since 6:1–9:7 is the only part in the book with autobiographical narration, these chapters probably come from an original memoir of Isaiah himself. The memoir is surrounded by judgment oracles with a repeated element, “Yet for all this, his anger is not turned away, his hand is still upraised” (5:25; 9:12, 17, 21; 10:4), suggesting that the memoir as a whole was inserted between these oracles to explain God’s anger recorded in 1–12. God’s mandate to Israel was to “be holy, because I am holy” (Lev. 11:44–45), but Israel failed to follow this command. In the presence of the holy God, Isaiah realized his own sinfulness and the sinfulness of his people (6:5), connecting the concepts of holiness and righteousness.

The remnant. Already in the first chapter we see the emergence of two groups within Israel: the wicked, who will be punished, and a remnant, who will be redeemed (1:27–31). This focus on the remnant was one way in which Isaiah saw hope for Israel despite the coming judgment that he predicted. The remnant theme highlights the apparent tension between God as holy and God as redeemer: God’s holiness is upheld through the judgment on Israel, but God’s character as savior is witnessed through the remnant that is redeemed.

A coming messianic king. The section 6:1–9:7 dates from the time of the Syro-Ephraimite war, and it appears that Isaiah wrote it down (8:16) when Ahaz refused his counsel. The memoir emphasizes the rejection of the Davidic king Ahaz and predicts the birth of a royal son who would replace Ahaz and bring freedom from oppression (9:1–7). This dissatisfaction with the reigning Davidic king was the seedbed for messianic expectations and is the background for the messianic trilogy of 7:14–16; 9:2–7; 11:1–9. While some of these passages may have originally referred to Hezekiah, he falls short of these messianic expectations, leaving the community of faith awaiting another anointed one (messiah). Ominously, chapter 39 describes Hezekiah’s entertaining guests from Babylon, perhaps implying an alliance between the two nations. Hezekiah’s actions prompt Isaiah to predict the Babylonian exile (39:6–7), providing a fitting segue to chapters 40–66.

Second Isaiah (Isa. 40–55)

A message to the exiles. Second Isaiah was written near the end of the exilic period for those who were deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon. Although the exiles in Babylon were settled in communities (Ezek. 3:15) and allowed to build houses and farm the land (Jer. 29:5–7), they had no temple for worship, and many of the exiles probably saw the destruction of Jerusalem and their temple as the end of God’s action on their behalf. The gods of Babylon appeared to have won the victory. The exiles’ faith was flagging, and even those who did not abandon worship of Israel’s God simply clung to the past and expected nothing new from him.

Contrary to these expectations, Second Isaiah proclaims that God is doing something new for his people and bringing an end to the exile (40:1; 55:12). The role of Cyrus in this deliverance is highlighted, with explicit and implicit reference made to the Persian king (41:2–3, 25; 44:28; 45:1–4, 13–14). However, amid the oracles of comfort there is also a challenge to Israel, which is somehow resistant to the message. To break down this resistance, the prophecy has a sustained rhetoric against idol worship, with some quite hilarious sections ridiculing idol makers (44:9–20). Israel needed to realize that only Yahweh is God and to trust that he will redeem Israel for his purposes. Chapters 1–39 allude to the redemption of Israel (1:27; 35:9), and chapters 40–66 reveal more of how this redemption will take place: the work of “the servant.”

The servant. Several poems featuring an anonymous “servant” (42:1–9; 49:1–12; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12) are often referred to as the Servant Songs. As far back as the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:34), interpreters have struggled with how to identify “the servant.” At times, Israel is explicitly identified as the servant (Isa. 41:8–9; 42:19 [2×]; 43:10), yet the servant clearly also has individual features, suggesting that a person was to fill the role. Some have suggested Cyrus because 42:1 says that the servant “will bring justice to the nations,” and Cyrus is described as conquering nations (41:2, 25; 45:1). However, despite all the talk of Cyrus, the text never explicitly applies the term “servant” to him, which can hardly be by chance. Alternatively, the servant could be the prophet who speaks in these chapters (as the Ethiopian eunuch speculated), since he was destined for his mission before his birth (49:1) and equipped for a mission involving prophetic speech (49:2) and had received divinely revealed knowledge (50:4).

Yet the Servant Songs are also messianic and look forward to a future anointed one who will fulfill the role of the servant fully. In the NT, Jesus is presented as the new Israel (cf. Matt. 2:15 with Hos. 11:1) who truly fulfills the role of the servant (John 12:38, quoting Isa. 53:1; Matt. 8:17, quoting Isa. 53:4). However, Paul appears to hold to a collective interpretation of the songs, as he sees himself as the servant in some instances (Acts 13:47; Rom. 15:21; Gal. 1:15). Both the individual and the collective interpretations are legitimated in the NT, as both Jesus (individual) and the church (collective), which is Christ’s body, fulfill the role of the servant.

Third Isaiah (Isa. 56–66)

In 539 BC Cyrus allowed the exiles to return home to rebuild Jerusalem and its temple (Ezra 1:1–4). Despite many obstacles, the temple was finished in 515 BC. Even with this success, living in the land was challenging (see Malachi), with factions among the people, economic troubles, hypocritical worship (Isa. 58:1–14), and problems with corrupt leaders (56:9–57:13). It was for this postexilic community that Third Isaiah was written (probably before the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah in 445 BC brought lasting change to the desperate situation).

Unlike in chapters 40–55, where Israel needs to be roused from its despair by the imminent actions of God, in chapters 56–66 the people are pleading with God to help them (59:11; 62:7). In chapter 59 the prophet declares that God’s delay in helping his people is due not to his inability but rather to the sins of the people, which are described, confessed, and lamented.

In many ways, Third Isaiah unites the themes of First Isaiah and Second Isaiah. Second Isaiah emphasizes the inbreaking of a new age that contrasts with the old. The former things are remembered, but the new thing that God was doing—the return from exile—is stressed. However, in Third Isaiah the deliverance from Babylon is seen as merely a foretaste of God’s promise, which is now identified as a new heaven and earth (chaps. 65–66). Third Isaiah looks forward to the new things that are still ahead.

First Isaiah predicts a Davidic messiah who would rule in righteousness (9:1–7; 11:1–9) and a faithful remnant that would respond in trust (10:20; 28:16). Second Isaiah does not continue with these themes, instead turning attention to the “servant” whose suffering and death would atone for Israel (53:4–5). However, Third Isaiah links First Isaiah’s faithful remnant with obedient “servants” who take on the mission of the Suffering Servant in Second Isaiah. This interpretation sets the direction for the NT’s identification of the royal messiah of chapters 1–39 as the servant of chapters 40–55 (Luke 24:26; Acts 8:32). Third Isaiah thus unites and reinterprets the book as a whole.

It is fitting that Jesus read the opening verses of Isa. 61 in the synagogue at the beginning of his ministry. Like Third Isaiah, he united prophecies of both the messianic Davidic ruler of First Isaiah and the Suffering Servant of Second Isaiah, taking on both roles himself. Third Isaiah ends with a glorious future pictured for the Jewish community as they function as priests in the world (61:6). Similarly, Christ’s body, the church, now functions in these same roles in the world (cf. Acts 13:47; Rev. 5:10).

Obadiah is the shortest book in the OT (twenty-one verses). It is a prophecy against one of ancient Israel’s most persistent enemies, the Edomites.

Historical Background

The superscription (1:1a) names Obadiah as the author of the book but adds nothing more. About a dozen people have the name “Obadiah” elsewhere in the OT, but we cannot be certain that any one of them can be identified with the prophet. His name means “servant of Yahweh.”

The prophecy is totally directed toward Edom, a nation located south of Moab, in the area to the southeast of the Dead Sea. It is a region of rugged mountains and wadis, thus difficult to attack.

The Bible attributes the Edomites’ origins to Esau, Jacob’s brother, whose other name is Edom, or “Red” (see Gen. 36). Notice that by the time Jacob returned from his sojourn in Paddan Aram, Esau, having already amassed a significant fortune, was dwelling in the region of Seir (a common synonym for Edom [see Gen. 32]).

It is true that Edom, like Moab and Ammon, refused the Israelites passage during the wilderness wanderings (Num. 20:14–21), but they found another way, thus avoiding violent confrontation. Still, there were subsequent battles between Edom and Israel. Later, for instance, David is described as having taken Edom as a vassal (2Sam. 8:14). Jehoshaphat had control over it (1Kings 22:47). An Edomite monarchy came about during the time of Jehoram (2Kings 8:20), at which time Edom rebelled against Judah and won its independence. Elath, an important seaport, was taken by the Edomites during the reign of Ahaz.

At the time of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem, Edom had taken advantage of the situation in some way. While not precisely described, this point can be established by reference to texts such as Ps. 137:7; Lam. 4:22; Ezek. 35:15.

The issue, then, is at what point in this long history the book of Obadiah is to be placed. One option is the mid-ninth century BC during the time of Jehoram (2Kings 8:20–22; 2Chron. 21:8–10). A much better setting for the book, however, is found in the early exilic period, described in the previous paragraph, thus dating the book to the sixth century BC.

Literary Considerations

The superscription refers to the book of Obadiah as a “vision.” It is a prophetic vision of the destruction of Edom for its sins against the people of God. It also presents a prophecy of encouragement to beleaguered Israel.

Obadiah may also be described as a prophetic oracle, specifically an oracle against a foreign nation. Such oracles are found in larger prophetic books as part of their overall collection (Isa. 13–23; Jer. 46–51; Ezek. 25–32; 35; Amos 1–2). Indeed, oracles against Edom are found in Isa. 34:5–15; Jer. 49:7–22; Ezek. 25:12–14; 35; Amos 1:11–12; Mal. 1:2–5. An especially close relationship exists between the Jeremiah passage and Obadiah, though the question of dependence of one on the other is debated and cannot be resolved with certainty.

Outline

I. Judgment on Edom (vv. 1–16)

II. Salvation of Israel (vv. 17–21)

Theological Message

The book of Obadiah is a prophecy against Israel’s enemy Edom. Many other oracles against Edom occur in the OT, but Obadiah is the only case where an entire book is dedicated to this purpose. Conflict between Edom and Israel goes back all the way to the patriarchal period, when their respective ancestors, the brothers Esau and Jacob, experienced conflict.

But ultimately, Obadiah is more than a book that is against Edom. The book proclaims that God is over all the nations, and though the enemies of God’s people may have momentary moments of glory, ultimately they will give way to those whom God has chosen. Indeed, the book ends with the triumphant statement “And the kingdom will be the Lord’s” (v.21).

New Testament Connections

The ancient rivalry between Jacob and Esau, Israel and Edom, has echoes in the NT. We see it when Herod the Great, an Idumean and a descendant of Edom, tries to kill the child Jesus, who represents everything that Israel was meant to be (Matt. 2:16).

Obadiah also provides a picture of the ultimate downfall of an oppressor of God’s people. It is a lesson that those who try to take advantage of God’s people may win the battle but will not win the war. Christians who read this are reminded of the book of Revelation, which functions similarly, informing God’s people that while sometimes it appears that evil has the upper hand, Christ’s return is certain and will result in the ultimate victory of righteousness.

OldTestament

Studentsof biblical history must work with several overlapping systems ofchronology. This section defines several approaches and describes howthey are interconnected.

Absoluteand relative dates.Absolute dates consist of a numerical value falling in one of twoeras, BC (“Before Christ”; also referred to as BCE,“Before the Common Era”) or AD (Anno Domini, “inthe year of our Lord”; also referred to as CE, “CommonEra”). For example, Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC.This system of absolute dating, a commonplace of modern life, wasdevised only in the sixth century AD, so it is unknown in biblicaland other ancient sources. Instead of absolute dates, the Bible andother ancient historiographic sources give relative dates; that is,events are dated in relation to other recorded events, as in 1 Kings15:1: “In the eighteenth year of the reign of Jeroboam son ofNebat, Abijah became king of Judah.” The system of relativedates in the OT can be collated to form a single relative chronology.

Usingroyal histories.For the purposes of constructing a unified chronology, the royalhistory in Samuel-Kings and Chronicles is of central importance, withits tabulations of the ages of the kings at accession and the lengthsof their reigns. The biblical chronology can then be assigned toabsolute dates by establishing synchronisms with other historicalchronicles (most usefully, from Mesopotamia), which in turn can befixed to a handful of absolute dates. Of particular importance arerecords (all nonbiblical cuneiform texts) of observed astronomicalphenomena, the appearance of which in history can now be calculatedwith a high degree of mathematical certainty. Annalistic sources(documents that record an entry for each passing year, such as thecuneiform eponym chronicles) are particularly valuable. The Biblecontains no annalistic sources, but rather is made up of chronisticsources—that is, texts that record and quantify the passage oftime, but without a separate accounting of each year. Whenmiscalculations or textual corruptions affect chronistic records,they are difficult to correct (see 1 Sam. 13:1). The biblicaldata, consisting of summary figures, probably go back to annalisticsources that were compiled from year to year (perhaps the recordsmentioned in, e.g., 1 Kings 11:41; 14:19).

Theassembly of a unified biblical chronology on the basis of the royalhistories is further complicated by the fact that severalcalendars—royal, agricultural, cultic—were insimultaneous use. There may also have been a discrepancy betweenIsrael and Judah with regard to the reckoning of the cultic New Year.Added to this, in several cases the biblical data imply a period ofcoregency, during which the reigns of the outgoing king and hisappointed successor overlapped, creating the potential for the yearsof the coregency to be counted twice. In biblical times there weretwo systems of reckoning dates based on royal succession: the“accession-year” system, which omitted from the length ofa king’s reign any partial year from his accession to the firstNew Year, and the “nonaccession-year” system, which begancounting the years of a king’s reign as soon as he acceded. Innonaccession-year dating, any year in which there are two kings getscounted twice: once as the last year of the former king, and once asthe first year of the new king. The biblical chronologies appear touse both systems, with a movement from the nonaccession-year systemto the accession-year system in later centuries. Obviously, thechoice of systems dictates the significance of the figures presentedin the Bible and must be taken into account in the collation of data.

Combiningroyal regnal data and various genealogical tables (based on, e.g.,Gen. 5; 11; the summary figures in Exod. 12:41; 1 Kings 6:1), itis possible to reconstruct a putative world chronology from thecreation of Adam to the exile. Famously, in 1650 James Ussherfollowed this procedure, working backward from absolute dates knownfrom classical sources, to determine that the world was created onthe night before October 23, 4004 BC. In its day, this was a work ofimpressive scholarship, but Ussher’s chronology is too short toencompass not only archaeological findings (from the land of Israelitself, there are Neolithic and Chalcolithic artifacts going back tenthousand years), but also findings in all branches of the sciencesthat corroborate the age of the earth at about 4.5 billion years andthe appearance of modern humans approximately two hundred thousandyears before the present. Beginning in the first millennium BC,however, the Bible provides chronological data that, with modestadjustments, agree with other historical and archaeological findings.

Weighingthe sources.Because of the variety of materials in the OT, it is crucial todetermine which sources are of historical value, weighing each interms of internal and external coherence. As noted above, thebackbone of OT chronology is the series of regnal data for the kingsof Israel and Judah found in Samuel-Kings and Chronicles. These dataare useful because they provide a continuous chronology of severalhundred years that can be anchored at several points to datableevents in external historical sources. In addition, the history ofthe kings of Judah and Israel contains references to historicalfigures known from extrabiblical records. In contrast, the chronologyof the OT prior to the period of judges, while internally coherent,cannot be correlated to known absolute dates. Where non-Israelitefigures are mentioned, they are often unnamed (e.g., the pharaohs ofthe eras of Abraham and Moses), anachronistically described (e.g.,Abraham’s contacts with the Philistines [Gen. 21:34], a groupthat did not appear in Palestine until long after the ostensibleMiddle Bronze Age date of Abraham), or do not correspond to knownhistorical figures (e.g., Abimelek, Nimrod). Althoughcultural-historical investigation may shed light on the patriarchalnarratives and their historical setting, such an approach yieldsnothing more than vague chronological findings. In some cases, thelate date of the biblical texts has obscured chronologicalindicators, interfering with the project of cultural history. Settingaside questions of the historicity of the patriarchal narratives,apart from the reports of their ages, there is little data to workwith when it comes to constructing a chronology of the patriarchs.

Thestory of the exodus from Egypt presents an event that, in principle,should be datable on the basis of external data. The mass migrationof millions of persons, the destruction of the army of a geopoliticalsuperpower, and the subsequent conquest of a small but powerfulcountry are events that promise to provide a chronological anchor forthe beginning of Israel’s history. Unfortunately, the eventrecorded in the Bible has not left a clear mark, either in thehistoriography of Egypt or in the archaeology of Palestine. On closerinspection, the biblical text contains a number of features thatfrustrate any attempt to date the events on their basis. Unlike inthe histories of the biblical monarchs, the pharaoh of the Exodus, afigure of international stature in his own day, is never named in theBible. Some have attempted to fix a date to the exodus on the basisof the occurrence of the name “Rameses” in Exod. 1:11;12:37. This name was not current in Egypt before the thirteenthcentury BC. If it provides a clue as to the date of the exodus, itdoes so only at the expense of broader biblical chronology, accordingto which the exodus occurred in the fifteenth century BC (inparticular, based on the figures given in Exod. 12:41; 1 Kings6:1). It is not until we get into the monarchic period, when thehistory of Israel is intertwined with that of named internationalfigures, that absolute dates can be established with certainty.

Biblicalevents that can be assigned absolute dates based on cuneiformhistorical records include the following. Ahab was king of Israel atthe time of the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. The Kurkh monolith ofShalmaneser III records his participation in the coalition ofHadadezer, though the event is not mentioned in the Bible. Jehu wason the throne of Judah in 841 BC, when Shalmaneser III recordedthat he gave tribute to Assyria. Joash was king of Israel in 796 BC,when he rendered tribute to Adad-nirari III. Menahem was king in740 and 738 BC (see 2 Kings 15:19), when he paid tribute toTiglath-pileser III (the biblical Pul). Ahaz paid tribute toTiglath-pileser in 734 BC, and Manasseh to Esarhaddon around 674 BC.These synchronisms provide in each case upper and lower limits forfixing the reign of the kings of Israel and Judah. In some cases, thechronology of the book of Kings must be adjusted to fit these dates,on the assumption that the Deuteronomistic Historian lacked firsthandknowledge about the history of the northern kingdom, was attemptingto work with conflicting sources, or made errors in calculation.Other important synchronisms include Hoshea’s coup againstPekah (2 Kings 15:30), dated based on an inscription ofTiglath-pileser III to 732 BC; the fall of Samaria (2 Kings17:6), dated based on the Babylonian Chronicle to 722 BC;Sennacherib’s Judean campaign in 701 BC (2 Kings18:13–19:36); the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC (Jer. 46:2);the capture of Jerusalem in 597 BC (2 Kings 24:12); and therelease of Jehoiachin from captivity in 561 BC, coinciding with theaccession of Amel-Marduk (2 Kings 25:27).

Periodizationof history.In addition to relative and absolute chronologies, biblical scholarsrefer to several schemes of periodization defined by technologicaland political developments.

Themost ancient scheme of periodization is implied in the Bible itself,which conceives of periods of judges (Judg. 17:6), united monarchy,divided monarchy, and exile. The transitions between phases in thisscheme are defined by dramatic social and political discontinuities.Another approach to the periodization of Israelite history involvesdefining the major transitions in terms of the material culture.Prior to the fall of Jerusalem, modern biblical scholars andarchaeologists divide Syro-Palestinian history into several periods,named for developments in metallurgical technology. While there issome variety of opinion among scholars regarding the exact datesused, the following scheme is widely used (given with roughcorrelations to the biblical periods):

EarlyBronze Age – 3300 to 2200 BC (Primeval period?)

MiddleBronze Age – 2200 to 1550 BC (Patriarch)

LateBronze Age – 1550 to 1200 BC (Period in Egypt, exodus)

IronAge – 1200 to 586 BC (Judges monarchy)

TheIron Age is further subdivided as follows:

IronAge – 1200 to 1000 BC (Judges)

IronAge IIA – 1000 to 900 BC (United monarchy)

IronAge IIB – 900 to 700 BC (Divided monarchy)

IronAge IIC – 700 to 586 BC (Fall of Samaria to fall of Jerusalem

Thedivisions between these periods are heuristic and do not correspondto precisely dated developments in metallurgy. For instance, someiron artifacts may be dated to the Bronze Age, though not widespreadiron metalworking on an industrial scale. Especially in the varioussubdivisions of the Iron Age, transitions begin to be defined bypolitical events rather than the metal sequence: Iron IAcorresponds to the biblical period of the judges, Iron IIA tothe united monarchy, Iron IIB to the divided monarchy, andIron IIC to the period between the falls of Samaria andJerusalem, when the southern kingdom alone had political autonomy.Some scholars round off the dates to avoid a periodization based onshort-term political events and to emphasize the gradual rate ofchange in material culture and technology (e.g., using the rounddates 900, 700, 600).

Forevents and dates after the fall of Jerusalem, historians employ ascheme of periodization based heavily on political factors. Theseries of periods are named for the dominant geopolitical powers inSyria-Palestine:

Neo-Babylonianperiod – 622 to 539 BC (Late Judean monarchy, exile)

Persianperiod – 539 to 330 BC (Return from exile)

Hellenisticperiod – 330 to 63 BC (Intertestamental)

Romanperiod – 63 BC to AD 324 (New Testament events

Althoughthere was significant redaction (and, according to some, composition)of biblical texts in the Hellenistic period, no biblical narrativesare ostensibly set in the period. Thus, the internal periodization ofhistory in the Hebrew Bible ends with the return from exile (thePersian period).

NewTestament

Thebirth of Jesus.According to Matt. 2:1 (see also Luke 1:5), Jesus was born during thelifetime of Herod the Great, who, as we know from Josephus, died in 4BC (see Matt. 2:15–19). In his attempt to kill Jesus, Herodordered the slaughter of male children up to the age of two, based oninformation that he obtained from the magi concerning the appearanceof the star heralding Jesus’ birth (Matt. 2:16). Thus,Matthew’s account implies a date no later than 4 BC, butpossibly several years earlier. Some scholars have attempted tocorrelate the magi’s observance of a star with one of severalstriking celestial phenomena, including a conjunction of Jupiter,Saturn, and Mars in 7 BC (so Johannes Kepler). Such attempts,however, are weakened by the fact that Matthew’s description ofthe star is vague, unnaturalistic, and difficult to identifycertainly with a planetary alignment or any other known phenomenon(in particular, the star is said to move and then come to rest overJesus’ location). Another line of investigation involves Luke’scorrelation of Jesus’ birth with a Roman census that he datesto the time of Quirinius (Luke 2:1–2). This report, however,contradicts the testimony of Josephus, according to whom Quiriniusbecame governor in AD 6 (a decade after the death of Herod). Mostlikely, Jesus was born shortly before 4 BC, during the reign ofHerod.

Thebeginning and duration of Jesus’ public ministry.According to Luke 3:23, Jesus was “about thirty years old”at the time of his baptism and the beginning of his public ministry.In John 8:57, Jesus is challenged: “You are not yet fifty yearsold.” These two round numbers provide reasonable limits for theage of Jesus during his ministry. Owing to a paucity of chronologicalindicators in the Synoptic Gospels, the ministry of Jesus as depictedin Matthew, Mark, and Luke could have taken place within the space ofa single year. In contrast, John narrates postbaptism events duringthree occurrences of the annual Passover festival (John 2:13; 6:4;11:55), suggesting that Jesus’ ministry lasted for three yearsor longer. Unfortunately, the chronology of John appears in someinstances to be at odds with the other Gospels. Most significantly,he places Jesus’ cleansing of the temple at the beginning,rather than the end, of his ministry (John 2:13–22; cf. Mark11:15–19 pars.). It is unclear to what degree strict chronologyhas been modified in the interest of other concerns in each of theGospels. According to John’s account, the cleansing of thetemple occurred forty-six years after the beginning of itsconstruction, an event that Josephus dates to either the eighteenthor the fifteenth year of Herod’s reign (John 2:20), placing theincident in the year AD 28 or 31. Ultimately, there are two sourcesof uncertainty pertaining to the chronology of Jesus’ ministry:the imprecise (and possibly symbolic) report of his age in Luke 3:23and the indeterminate length of his ministry.

Thedeath of Jesus.All four Gospels agree that Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator ofJudea, was instrumental in the trial and execution of Jesus. Pilategoverned from AD 26 to 36; this provides a latest possible date forthe death of Jesus. To refine the chronology beyond this, scholarshave attempted to date the end of Jesus’ life based on itsoccurrence during the Feast of Passover (15 Nisan in the Jewishcalendar) and by trying to determine in which year the feast wouldhave coincided with his crucifixion on a Friday. This approach iscomplicated by the discrepancy between John, according to whom thePassover meal was eaten in the evening following the crucifixion(John 19:14), and Mark, who appears to have an imperfect knowledge ofPassover customs (Mark 14:12–16) and thus describes Jesus’final supper with his disciples as a Passover meal (i.e., on 14Nisan). Following John’s chronology yields a date for thecrucifixion of Friday, April 7 (Nisan 14), AD 30, or Friday, April 3(Nisan 14), AD 33.

Ofthese two options, the AD 30 date conforms more closely to Luke 3:23,and it suggests that following a ministry of about three years, Jesuswas in his mid- to late thirties at the time of his crucifixion.

Paul’scareer.Thechronology of Paul’s career remains a difficult question inbiblical studies. There are two major sources for this chronology:the letters of Paul (esp. Galatians) and the book of Acts. Whenindependent chronologies are constructed from each of these sources,several difficulties arise, including the absence of absolute anchorsin Paul’s letters, lack of clear agreement between Acts and theletters regarding the number of visits to Jerusalem, and, byimplication, the periodization of Paul’s career into distinctphases of concerted activity or “missionary journeys.”These data must in turn be synchronized, sometimes requiring someingenuity, with other historically documented events such as thedating of Claudius’s edict (Acts 18:2), the dates of Aretas’scontrol of Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32–33), the death of HerodAgrippa in AD 44 (mentioned in Acts 12:23), the presence of SergiusPaulus in Cyprus during Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts13:7 [this figure is known from inscriptions, but none of themclearly bears on the question]), and Festus’s succession ofFelix as the procurator of Palestine (Acts 23–26), whichJosephus puts in AD 53.

Ifwe grant a fair measure of historical reliability to the outline ofActs, Paul experienced his conversion around AD 33, visited Jerusalemin AD 36 (Gal. 1:18), completed his first missionary journey and thenvisited Jerusalem to confer with the other apostles (Acts 15:1–29;Gal. 2:1) in the late 40s, conducted his second and third missionaryjourneys in the first half of the 50s before being finally arrestedin Jerusalem around AD 57, and was taken to Rome in AD 59–60.

Author

Althoughstrictly anonymous, the first Gospel has always been known as“according to Matthew,” and no evidence exists that itever circulated without this name. The author is traditionally theapostle Matthew, a former tax collector (9:9). Mark (2:14) and Luke(5:27) identify him as “Levi,” probably his earlier name.This may be further established by the noticeable references to moneyin the first Gospel: the parables of the unmerciful servant (18:23)and of the daily pay of workers (20:1), the bribe paid to the guardsat the tomb to get them to lie (28:12), and Judas’s return ofthe thirty silver coins (27:5). These stories, unique to Matthew,relate the morality of money in an unequivocal way, indicatingMatthew’s own interests from his former life.

Matthew’sGospel appears first in almost every extant witness to the NT, and itwas considered the preeminent Gospel by the early church. It is theGospel most quoted by the early church fathers. Of the four Gospels,Matthew’s is most oriented toward a Jewish audience.

Sources

Acursory reading of the Gospels reveals that the first three, Matthew,Mark, and Luke (the Synoptic Gospels), share much of the samematerial. Yet each has its own collection and order of events,reflecting its own theological emphasis. This is quite to ourbenefit: by examining the differences between the three Gospels, notonly do we see different facets of Jesus, but also we can discern andfilter the idiosyncrasies of each writer. If Matthew records an eventlater in his Gospel, there must be a reason consistent with hispurposes.

Mostcurrent research holds that Mark was written first and providedmaterial for both Matthew and Luke. Matthew tends to smooth out the“rough” Greek of Mark; he also compresses many of thestories, and in a few places he “fixes” passages in Markthat might have seemed unclear or offensive. Material from Mark usedby Matthew is generally narrative of Jesus’ life.

Matthewand Luke also contain similar material not found in Mark, theso-called Q material (“Q” is from the German Quelle,which means “source”). No Q document is extant. If itever existed, it may represent an oral tradition. The Q material inMatthew has strong ethical content, such as the Sermon on the Mount,many of the parables, and the Olivet Discourse. Additionally, Matthewand Luke contain material unique to their own Gospels: M in Matthew,L in Luke. The M material includes the birth and infancy narratives,some of the stories surrounding Jesus’ death and resurrection,and a few of the parables.

Theuse of Mark (not an apostle) by the apostle Matthew is not assurprising as it may seem. Papias reported that Mark wrote thereminiscences of Peter, a member of Jesus’ inner circle and theleader of the apostolic group. Surely Matthew would have no problemusing Mark’s Gospel as a starting point for his own.

Date

Datingthe Gospels is difficult. If Matthew borrowed from Mark, then thedate of Mark and how long it would have taken to circulate to Mattheware important in the discussion. The first convincing use of Matthewby an external author is Ignatius, early in the second century. Thisplaces Matthew in the period between the early 60s to the early 90s.

Internalevidence includes, as in most NT literature dating, Matthew’srelationship to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. If Matthewwrote after this date, we might expect to see this reflected in somepassages, especially in the Olivet Discourse, Jesus’ prophecyof the Jewish war. The mention of a city being burned in retributionin 22:7 is casual enough to suggest that Matthew did not know of thishappening to Jerusalem. There also are many references to the templethat might have merited a mention of its subsequent loss.

Themention of the temple tax in 17:24 is important. Before AD 70, payingthe tax supported the Jewish temple and showed solidarity withIsrael. After AD 70, the revenue was diverted to the temple ofJupiter in Rome. Jews were required to continue paying under duressand considered it support of idolatry. Had this been Matthew’sworld, he likely would have explained this critical point to hisreaders.

Argumentsfor a late date include references to the church (Matthew alone amongthe Gospel writers uses the term ekklēsia), possibly indicatingan interest in church orderthat developed later; historical tensions between the church and theJews, which only peaked in AD 85; and thoughts of a later date forMark. For some, Matthew’s account of Jesus’ predictionsof the destruction of Jerusalem is so vivid that it would have tohave been written afterward. Many consider the theology of Matthew sosophisticated that it would require a later date.

Externalevidence includes the early church tradition that Matthew was writtenearly, though part of this thinking is that Matthew was written firstof the Synoptics. Still, an early date for Matthew seems the best,though the evidence is far from conclusive.

Structure

Matthew’sliterary pointers do not necessarily align with his themes, makingfor a rich, complex structure that is hard to outline. The followingare some of the structures that scholars have proposed.

Bydiscourse.Matthew has five clear sections of Jesus’ discourses, set apartby a concluding phrase along the lines of “when Jesus hadfinished saying these things” (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1).The five discourses alternate with related narratives of Jesus’deeds. These discourses should not be thought of as intact, recordedsermons; they are compilations of Jesus’ teachings assembled byMatthew. The parallels in the other Gospels of this material differ:some of it is together as Matthew has it, but much of it is scatteredin the other accounts. Matthew organized his material into types ofstories and types of ministry by Jesus. Early on, Jesus is theethical teacher; later, he is the stern lecturer warning Israel ofimpending judgment.

Bystory line.Another proposed structure concerns the story line of the Gospel.Matthew twice uses the concluding phrase “from that time onJesus began to...” (4:17; 16:21). But thesetwo instances, particularly 16:21, are in the middle of the narrativeline and cannot be thought of as major literary structural markers.It is likely that Matthew uses this phrase to notify his readers of anew phase of the story, and possibly of a new approach in ministry byJesus.

Bygeography.This concept revolves around the geography and movement of Jesus fromhis birth, through the ministry in Galilee, around Galilee, and toJerusalem.

Outline

Thefollowing outline offers a thematic organization of Matthew’sGospel:

I.The Miraculous Beginnings of Jesus (1:1–4:11)

II.Ethical Teachings and Miracles (4:12–10:42)

III.Confrontation and Reactions (11:1–16:20)

IV.The Messiah Must Suffer (16:21–20:28)

V.Jesus Claims Authority and Receives Praise (20:29–25:46)

VI.The Death of Jesus (26:1–27:66)

VII.The Resurrection of Jesus (28:1–28:20)

I.The miraculous beginnings of Jesus (1:1–4:11).Jesus’ genealogy and childhood show him to be the fulfillmentof OT prophecy. His baptism demonstrates this fulfillment; his fortydays of testing in the desert identify him with Israel.

II.Ethical teachings and miracles (4:12–10:42).This section begins with a geographical change, as Jesus returns toGalilee. Having instructed his disciples, he sends them out as anextension of his own mission.

III.Confrontation and reactions (11:1–16:20).This section also involves a change of geography. Jesus first isquestioned by John’s disciples, then by the Pharisees, andfinally by the people in his own town. The questions are resolved byPeter’s confession.

IV.The messiah must suffer (16:21–20:28).This is the third section that begins “from that time on Jesusbegan to....” Jesus explains to his disciplesthat he will die at the hands of the Jews but be raised on the thirdday. This section includes the transfiguration and many parablesconcerning judgment and reward. The climax is at the end, when Jesusdeclares that he has come “to give his life as a ransom formany.”

V.Jesus claims authority and receives praise (20:29–25:46).Another geographical shift occurs, as Jesus and his disciples leaveJericho. Jesus acknowledges the title “Lord, Son of David,”cleanses the temple, and argues with the Pharisees about the sourceof his authority. The parables concern sonship and responses toauthority. The Pharisees try to entrap Jesus. Jesus teaches aboutauthority, then rebukes the Pharisees. Chapter 24 describes theconsequences of the ultimate rejection of authority. The climax isthe parable of the sheep and the goats.

VI.The death of Jesus (26:1–27:66). Matthew’sGospel has built-in intensity up to the passion narrative. Thissection builds again within itself, from the anointing of Jesus inBethany to the hush as the tomb is closed and sealed.

VII.The resurrection of Jesus (28:1–28:20).The accounts of the resurrection and postresurrection appearances arebrief but significant and contain several details not found in theother Synoptics.

TheUnique Contributions of Matthew

Amongthe unique contributions of Matthew are his genealogy of Jesus (whichdiffers significantly from Luke’s); the birth/infancy narrativeof 1:18–2:23, which includes the rec-ord of the angel appearingto Joseph, the magi from the East, the slaughter of the innocents,and the flight to Egypt; the Great Commission, where Jesus commandshis followers to “go and make disciples of all nations,baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son andofthe Holy Spirit” (28:19); and the Sermon on the Mount (chaps.5–7), the largest block of the teachings of Jesus in the NT(Matthew contains large blocks of Jesus’ teaching in the otherdiscourses as well).

Useof the Old Testament

Matthew’suse of the OT is remarkable. Matthew is concerned with showing Jesusas the fulfillment of the OT and God’s salvation history. Thiscan be seen in the so-called fulfillment quotations (1:22–23;2:15, 17–18, 23; 4:14–16; 8:17; 12:17–21; 13:35;21:4–5; 27:9–10; see also 2:5–6; 13:14; 26:54, 56,and 3:3; 22:31–32) as well as in the narrative portions of thebook, particularly in the sweeping statement of 26:56: “Thishas all taken place that the writings of the prophets might befulfilled.”

Matthewimmediately appeals to the OT in recounting the genealogy of Jesus.He divides the history of Israel into three eras: the firstculminates in David, the second with the exile—clearly two ofthe most significant turning points in Israel’s history—thethird in Jesus, the Christ.

Thequote “Out of Egypt I called my son” (2:15), from Hos.11:1, is an excellent example of Matthew’s commitment tofulfillment. The passage in Hosea clearly is not looking forward tothis verse, but Matthew employs this short sentence to identify Jesusas the fulfillment of Israel and uses the return from Egypt of theholy family to illustrate the parallels in Jesus’ life with theexperience of the Jews. Matthew’s use of the OT here, and ingeneral, follows ancient, particularly Jewish, interpretiveconventions.

Matthewcontains a number of OT quotations not found in the other Synoptics.These appear generally as asides from Matthew himself—his ownreflections, as it were, not the words of Jesus. Matthew clearly seesthe relationship between Jesus and the OT in both directions: Jesusis the total fulfillment of the OT, and the OT is deeply concernedwith pointing the way to Jesus.

Matthewthen applies OT passages to the life of Jesus: Jesus is the virgin’sson in Isa. 7:14 (Matt. 1:22–23), the one coming from Bethlehemto rule over Israel in Mic. 5:2 (Matt. 2:5–6), and the soncalled out of Egypt in Hos. 11:1 (Matt. 2:15); the slaughter ofinfants reflects the fall of Judah seen in Jer. 31:15 (Matt.2:17–18); and Jesus is the great light on Zebulun and Naphtaliof Isa. 9:1–2 (Matt. 4:13–16).

Jesus’Relationship to Jewish Leaders

Matthew’sGospel is almost universally negative toward the religious leaders,even where parallel passages do not reflect this antagonism (compareMatt. 23:37 with Luke 13:31). Matthew records many groups of leaders:teachers of the law (scribes), Pharisees, Sadducees, chief priests,and elders; he often combines terms, “scribes and Pharisees”being his favorite combination. Matthew portrays the Pharisees as themost hostile to Jesus, identifying them as a “brood of vipers”(3:7).

Yet,the Gospel of Matthew is far from being an anti-Jewish work. Jesus isthe fulfillment of the OT; he was sent “only to the lost sheepof Israel” (15:24); people praise the God of Israel for hishealing demonstrations. Matthew’s point is that it is Israel’sleaders and those who reject their Messiah who are bringing judgmentupon themselves.

Several kings of the Jews, related by birth, had the name“Herod.” The Herods formed a royal dynasty thatflourished during the time of Christ and the early church. Thefounder of the dynasty was Antipater, who was appointed by Caesar in47 BC as procurator of Judea. The Herods, being partly Edomite(descended from Esau) as well as loyal servants of Rome, were neverfully accepted by their Jewish subjects. The family history wascharacterized by lust, intrigue, and bloodshed. They opposed theChristian faith, sometimes violently, being responsible for theattempted murder of Jesus (Matt. 2:16), the beheading of John theBaptist (Matt. 14:1–12), and the execution of the apostle James(Acts 12:2).

(1)Herod I (Herod the Great), son of Antipater, known as King Herod(Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5). He ruled Palestine in the years 37–4 BCwith Roman consent. A skillful politician, he managed to retain thefavor of Rome by deftly switching allegiances when necessary. Acapable ruler in some respects, he engaged in extensive buildingworks. His finest project was the beautification of the temple, whichhe hoped would win Jewish favor. The rabbis would later say, “Whoeverhas not seen Herod’s building has not seen anything beautiful.”

Hisrule, however, was marred by paranoia, suspicion, and cruel jealousy.He had some of his wives and sons killed for suspected plotting. InMatthew’s Gospel he is visited by wise men looking for “onewho has been born king of the Jews.” Subsequently, he massacredthe male infants of Bethlehem, trying to rid himself of this new,royal challenger (Matt. 2:1–11). Upon his death, his kingdomwas divided among three of his sons, Herod Antipas, Herod Archelaus,and Herod Philip.

(2)Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, also known simply as Herod oras Herod the tetrarch (Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19). He was givenjurisdiction over Galilee and Perea, which he ruled from 4 BC to AD39 (Luke 3:1). For this reason, when Pilate heard that Jesus camefrom Galilee, he sent him to Antipas for questioning (Luke 23:6–12).

Heis infamous for his role in the death of John the Baptist, whichlater haunted him (Matt. 14:1–12; Mark 6:14–29). Jesusreferred to him as “that fox,” alluding to his predatorydestructiveness for having killed John the Baptist, who criticizedhim for taking his half brother’s wife, Herodias, in marriage.He also sought to kill Jesus (Luke 13:31–32). Jesus warned thedisciples of the yeast of Herod (Mark 8:15). Yeast was a metaphorsometimes used to describe how evil spreads and corrupts the wholeperson, perhaps a reference to Herod’s lust for Herodias andhis murderous opposition to God’s word and Son. (See alsoAntipas.)

(3)Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–AD6) and son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:22). (See also Archelaus.)

(4)Herod Philip, son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem; hewas tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis in the years 4 BC–AD 34(Luke 3:1). He rebuilt Paneas and named it “Caesarea Philippi”after the emperor and himself (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27). Apparently,he married his niece SalomeIII, the daughter of Herodias andhis half brother Herod son of MariamneII.

(5)Herod (Philip), son of Herod the Great and MariamneII, he wasmarried to Herodias, who left him for his half brother Antipas (Matt.14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19). Though sharing a common name, this is adifferent son of Herod the Great than the Herod Philip of Luke 3:1.

(6)Herod Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great, also called “KingHerod” in Scripture (Acts 12:1). At the height of his power (r.AD 37–44), he ruled an area coextensive with that of hisgrandfather. He persecuted the early church, killing James thebrother of John. Encouraged by the Jews, he imprisoned Peter,intending to put him on trial, until an angel of God miraculouslyintervened to free him. He died prematurely in Caesarea when struckdown for not giving glory to God (Acts 12:20–25).

(7)Herod Agrippa II (reigned in Chalcis AD 48–52, in Iturea AD52–c. 93), the son of Herod AgrippaI. Prompted by thegovernor Festus, he gave audience to the apostle Paul to make hisdefense. He rejected Paul’s attempt to persuade him of thetruth of the Christian faith (Acts 25:13–27; 26).

There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.

Sinin the Bible

OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.

InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).

Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).

NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

Definitionand Terminology

Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.

Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.

1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).

2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.

3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).

4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).

Metaphors

Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.

Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).

Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).

Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).

Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).

Scopeand Consequences

Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.

Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).

Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.

Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.

Conclusion

Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”

The name given to the historical period between the Old andNew Testaments (fifth century BC–first century AD). It is alsoknown as the Second Temple period. The first Jewish temple, completedby Solomon around 960 BC, was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587/586BC. The second temple, completed by Zerubbabel in 516 BC (andexpanded later by Herod the Great), was eventually destroyed by theRomans in AD 70. The intertestamental period is roughly, then, theperiod from the return of the Babylonian exile to the dawn of theChristian era.

Theexile of the Israelites to Babylon marks a turning point in thehistory of redemption. Prior to this experience God’s peoplewere constantly tempted to worship other gods. During the exile themajority appear to have abandoned their faith. Only a small remnantever returned to the promised land.

Theyrebuilt the city of Jerusalem. The Torah became their constitution,but the expectations of the biblical prophets were not fulfilled.When the temple was opened, there is no mention of a return of thevisible presence of God. The rabbinic tradition would later observethat “after the later prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachihad died, the Holy Spirit departed from Israel” (b.Yoma9b), implying that God had fallen silent. Nevertheless, the Hebrewcanon closes offering the hope of forgiveness and restoration (cf.2Chron. 7:14).

Duringthis period there were significant Jewish communities in Persia,Babylon, and Egypt. They formed assemblies, or “synagogues,”as centers of Jewish community and faith. The Jews in Egypt built atemple at Aswan, on the island of Elephantine. In their letters theyclaimed that this temple had existed before the days of Cambyses(late sixth centuryBC).

Theywere particularly challenged by the worship of idols, the threat ofpersecution, and the difficulties of observing the laws ofseparation, especially the food laws and the ban on mixed marriages.We have very little extracanonical Jewish literature of the Persianperiod. We do have a series of stories, difficult to date, that lookback to the time of Jeremiah (Letter of Jeremiah) or Daniel (Susanna;Bel and the Dragon; Prayer of Azariah; Song of the Three Young Men).See Apocrypha, Old Testament.

GreekRule (333–63 BC)

Afterdefeating the Persians at the Battle of Issus (333 BC), Alexander theGreat swept through Palestine on his way to Egypt. His early death(323 BC) led to a series of wars between his four generals.Eventually, Seleucus controlled Babylon and ruled from Syria toIndia, while Ptolemy was declared Pharaoh (301 BC) and ruledPalestine from Egypt.

ThePtolemies developed a strongly Greek culture in Egypt. Alexandriabecame a world center of learning. PtolemyII Philadelphus (r.287–247 BC) sponsored the translation of the Torah into Greek.This coincided with the gradual translation of the rest of the HebrewScriptures (the Septuagint). Under the Ptolemies, the Jews colonizedGalilee, bypassing Samaria and reclaiming the north for “Israel.”

TheJews in Egypt struggled to win equality and respect for theirtraditions. Some simply abandoned their Jewish distinctives. Othersattempted to win respect through wise business enterprises. Some Jewsentered the academy and attempted to explain Jewish traditions byusing the categories and values of the Greek philosophers, minimizingthe differences (Letter of Aristeas; Sibylline Oracles, book3).Others argued for the priority and superiority of the Jewishtradition, claiming that Greek and Egyptian learning could be tracedback to God’s revelation through Moses and the patriarchs. Anyattempt to rigorously maintain the distinctives of the Jewish faithand observance of the law of Moses remained the agenda of a smallminority (cf. 3Maccabees; Additions to Esther).

Duringthe third century BC tensions between the Seleucids and the Ptolemiesgrew, and Jews in Palestine became involved in these intrigues. Thehigh priest SimonII (219–196 BC) used to pay theprovincial taxes to Ptolemy out of his own means.

BenSira (died 175 BC) ran a school in Jerusalem. He pointed his studentsto the wisdom of the Jewish Scriptures rather than Greek philosophy.Some time after 117 BC his grandson translated his work into Greek(the book of Sirach).

Thefamily of Tobijah, who opposed Nehemiah, had become rich and powerfuland married into the family of the high priest. When Simon’sson Onias became high priest, he refused to pay Ptolemy’s tax.So Joseph Tobiad, Onias’s nephew, paid the tax and won thecontract to collect the taxes of Judah. His youngest son, Hyrcanus,outbid his father and so started a family feud. Joseph worked for theSeleucids, while Hyrcanus remained loyal to Ptolemy.

Aftera series of wars the Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies (198 BC). Asteady flow of Jews migrated to Egypt. Initially, AntiochusIII(r. 221–187 BC) issued a decree granting certain privileges tothe Jews and funded the repairs to Jerusalem necessitated by thewars. Following his defeat by the Romans (190 BC), his son Antiochusbecame a Roman hostage, and he was required to pay a huge tribute. Hedecided to loot the temple in Jerusalem. He died in Babylon whilelooting the temple of Bel. SeleucusIV (r. 187–175 BC)sent his son to Rome in exchange for his brother Antiochus and madeanother raid on the Jerusalem temple for funds. In 175 BC Antiochusoverthrew his brother and took the throne as AntiochusIVEpiphanes (“God made visible”).

Somewhereduring this period works started to appear claiming to be thewritings of Enoch and Noah. According to these works, Gentile nationswere empowered by demons operating through idols. Gentile religionand culture arose from their deceptions. God had revealed to Enochand Noah the secrets needed to counter these deceptions. Thisinvolved the adoption of a distinctive 364-day calendar. As thistradition developed, other works appeared that incorporated theseideas into a rereading of the Scriptures. Both the book of Jubilees(c. 168–150 BC), which cites the writings of Enoch and Noah asauthentic, and the Temple Scroll claim to be a second revelationgiven to Moses on Mount Sinai—a revelation for the chosenrighteous of the last days. Other books had been passed on toAbraham, Jacob, and eventually Levi. While Israel had failed to keep“the first law,” this body of revelation claimed toenable the elect to rightly interpret the law, survive the comingjudgment, and gain possession of the whole earth.

Atabout this time also we hear of the rise of the “pious ones”(Hasidim) indicating a widespread stirring of heart and a seekingafter God (1Macc. 2:42; 7:12–18). The additional storiescontained in 1Esdras may reflect some of the concerns of thistime. The difficulty was to know the right way back among so manycompeting voices.

TheHasmoneans (168–63 BC)

WhenAntiochusIV took the throne (175 BC), Jason, brother of thehigh priest OniasIII, offered the king money to make himselfhigh priest instead and to declare Jerusalem a Greek city. The kingagreed, and when OniasIII died, his son OniasIV fled toEgypt, where, inspired by the prophesy of Isa. 19:19, he built atemple at Leontopolis.

TheTobiads and most of the wealthier Jewish nobility, including manypriests, were deeply committed to Greek culture, educating their sonsin the Greek gymnasium, which involved nudity and hom*osexuality andmaking offerings to Zeus. This hugely offended Jews who were focusedon returning Israel to God’s favor.

Ezekielhad stated that only men descended from Zadok could officiate aspriests (Ezek. 40:46). Menelaus offered the king more money andreplaced Jason. From this point onward, the office of high priestwould be up for sale. Menelaus was not descended from Zadok, and hisappointment was widely recognized as corruption. He began sellingtemple vessels to raise money.

Meanwhile,Antiochus had embarked on two failed attempts to conquer Egypt (170and 168 BC) and had raided the Jerusalem temple for funds. While hewas away, Jason, believing that Antiochus had been killed, attackedMenelaus and tried to regain the high priesthood. Antiochus had beenhumiliated in front of his troops when Rome ordered him to leaveEgypt, and he was in financial trouble. So when, upon his return,riots broke out in Jerusalem, he took excessive measures. After hisdeparture the rioting resumed, and he determined to put an end toJudaism.

Hedesecrated the temple by sacrificing a pig to Zeus on the altar (cf.Dan. 9:27). The Scriptures were banned. Parents who circumcised a sonwere executed along with the boy. His cruelty and excesses arerecorded in gruesome detail in 1–2 Maccabees (esp. 2Macc.7).

Theking’s officials began to force the citizens to offer sacrificeto Zeus. When they came to the village of Modein, a priest,Mattathias of the family of Hasmon, killed the king’s officialsand those who had obeyed them and fled with his five sons. A revoltensued, and within three years the Seleucids were defeated. It tookanother twenty years before an independent Jewish state wasestablished (October 20, 142 BC).

FollowingMattathias’s death, his son Judas (nicknamed “Maccabeus,”meaning “the hammer”) led the revolt. Jerusalem wasrecaptured and the temple cleansed (164 BC), an event stillcelebrated as the Feast of Hanukkah (Lights). When Antiochus waskilled fighting the Persians, the Seleucids restored Jewish freedomand executed Menelaus. The new king, Demetrius, attempted to appointAlcimus as high priest. Hostilities intensified, and Judas, who hadconcluded a treaty with Rome, was killed in battle (c. 160 BC). Hisbrother Jonathan, not a Zadokite, took over and became high priest(152 BC). The Jewish historian Josephus’s first mention of theEssenes, the Pharisees, and the Sadducees occurs during his reign.

TheSadducees were predominantly priests who, while advocating their owninterpretations of the law, were increasingly more concerned withpower and money. They rejected predestination in favor of human freewill and denied the existence of angels and the resurrection.

ThePharisees based their interpretation of the law on the traditions oftheir forebears, which they claimed could be traced back to oral lawgiven by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. They accepted predestination,angels, and bodily resurrection. Coming from the middle and lowerclasses, the Pharisees had popular support and were active inteaching the law in the synagogues.

Sincethe discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a scholarly consensus hasgrown that identifies the Qumran sect as being part of the groupcalled the “Essenes” by Josephus, Philo, and Pliny. Assuch, their roots can be traced back to Jewish exiles in Damascus(CD-A 6:5) who adopted the teachings of the early Enoch literatureand entered into what they called the “new covenant” torepent and rightly live by the law. Under the leadership of onecalled the “Teacher of Righteousness,” they returned toJudea following the Hasmonean takeover of Jerusalem.

Initially,many, such as the author of the Animal Apocalypse (1En.90:9–19), saw the Hasmonean revolt as God’s intervention.The appointment of Jonathan as high priest produced two strongreactions. The Sadducees and the Pharisees vied for the favor of theHasmoneans, while the Essenes declared the Hasmonean high priesthoodillegitimate and abandoned worship in the temple.

WhenJonathan was murdered (142 BC), his brother Simon took over, andJewish freedom from Seleucid control was finally established. InSeptember of 140 BC the Jewish leadership decreed that Simon wouldhave total control of Judaism, including the final say in all mattersregarding the correct observance of the law (1Macc. 14:25–47).Groups that followed any other interpretation of the law would facehis sanctions. It is not clear how rigorously he used these powers.

Amongthe Essenes, the group that followed the Teacher of Righteousnesssuffered internal division, and the “Man of the Lie” leda significant number to turn back and “depart from the Way”(see 1QpHab 2:1–4; 5:6–12; 10:6–9; CD-B 20:10–15).

Simon’sact of uniformity was designed to unite the Jewish faithful againstthose who had abandoned the faith and gone over to the Greeks, butthe Jewish faithful were not united. The high priest had to choosesides. Those who dissented were bound to live in the political“wilderness.”

In134 BC the Seleucids invaded Judea, and Simon was murdered. The highpriesthood passed to his son John HyrcanusI (135–104 BC),who made peace with the Seleucids. He captured Samaria (129 BC),destroyed the Samaritan temple, and forced the Samaritans to adoptthe Jewish lifestyle. He appears to have extended greater tolerancewithin Judaism, but he was opposed by the Pharisees.

Itwas during this period that the Essenes were able to establish theirfacility at Qumran. There scholars collected, copied, and composedbooks that would later become known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. Thislibrary contained all the books of the OT (with the probableexception of Esther). Works attributed to Enoch, Noah, Levi, and thepatriarchs as well as Jubilees and the Temple Scroll constituted asecond body of written revelation. There were works claiming to beinspired commentaries on the Scriptures, hymns possibly written bythe Teacher of Righteousness, and rules governing communal lifestyleand worship. We also find copies of Sirach and Tobit. The Testamentof Moses and Psalms of Solomon, though not found among the DSS, maywell have originated in groups influenced by this tradition.

Qumranwas the academic center for Essene scholarship and training. It alsofunctioned as something of a Sanhedrin in exile. Essenes believedthat the exile had not ended, and their way of keeping the law wasthe only way of salvation. They vehemently opposed the Pharisees andthe Sadducees.

TheIdumeans were the descendants of Esau, known in the OT as Edomites.Nabatean Arabs had moved into their territory southeast of Judea anddriven them out. In 164 BC Judas Maccabeus had opposed their advance(1Macc. 4:61). They now appealed for acceptance within thesouthern borders of Judea, and John Hyrcanus agreed on condition thatthey convert to Judaism.

WhenJohn’s son AristobulusI (104–103 BC) became highpriest, he had himself declared king as well as high priest. Heextended Hasmonean rule into Galilee.

AmongJewish works of this time, the book of Judith presents the plight ofpious Israelites in the guise of a godly woman. Laced with humor andirony, it depicts the horror of Gentile power against the wisdom andbeauty of a woman who manages to decapitate the enemy. The book ofBaruch echoes much of Sirach, but it is difficult to date. The bookof 1Maccabees was written to defend the claims of the Hasmoneandynasty. It tells the story of events during the years 200–135BC. Jason of Cyrene then wrote a history to refute Hasmonean claimswhile still celebrating the accomplishments of the family in freeingthe Jews from Greek domination. Later his work would be abridged andappear as 2Maccabees, focusing closely on the Maccabean wars(175–162 BC).

ThePharisees opposed the next king, Alexander Jannaeus, also known asKing Jonathan (r. 103–76 BC). When he appeared drunk in thetemple, the crowd pelted him with lemons, and he sent in his troops,resulting in a massacre (Josephus, Ant. 13.372–73). Hecrucified eight hundred Pharisees, slaughtering their families beforetheir eyes. When he died, his wife, Alexandra Salome (r. 76–67BC), supported the Pharisees and was more conciliatory toward theSamaritans. Her eldest son, HyrcanusII, became high priest. TheSadducees backed her younger son, AristobulusII, who rebelledand claimed both the throne and the high priesthood. At this pointthe struggle between Pharisees and Sadducees developed into openwarfare.

RomanRule (63 BC to the Birth of Jesus)

Afterinitial setbacks, HyrcanusII obtained the support of Antipater,the governor of Idumea. Antipater was an ambitious man, well placedwith the Romans. He called upon the Arabian king Aretas for help, andtogether they defeated AristobulusII in 65 BC. When the Romangeneral Pompey defeated the last Seleucid king and made Syria a Romanprovince, Aristobulus and Hyrcanus went to him. Pompey sided withHyrcanus, and the supporters of Aristobulus were finally routed fromthe temple (63 BC). Priests were slaughtered in the fighting.Aristobulus and his supporters went as prisoners to Rome. Thus endedthe independent Jewish state established by the Maccabees in 142 BC.Pompey then ordered the cleansing of the temple and the reinstitutionof the sacrifices and the priesthood. HyrcanusII served as highpriest until his death (40BC).

TheRoman Empire soon entered a period of civil war as the republic cameto an end, with Julius Caesar defeating Pompey (48 BC). Just in time,Antipater and Hyrcanus switched sides and appealed to Caesar toforgive their initial alliance with Pompey, which he did. Antipaterwas appointed procurator of Judea, and HyrcanusII was confirmedas high priest.

Antipaterappointed his son Herod as governor of Galilee, in which position hequickly had to deal with a bandit, Ezekiel, who terrorized the area.With the defeat of these criminals (46 BC), Herod won the favor ofthe Galilean people.

Overalladministration of Palestine came under the rule of the governor ofSyria, Sextus Caesar. In 46 BC Hyrcanus brought Herod to trial beforethe Sanhedrin in an attempt to limit his power to interfere withJewish lifestyle and law, but the Syrian governor intervened, and thehigh priest had to back down. Herod then moved his administration toDamascus.

Backin Rome, having murdered Julius Caesar (44 BC), Cassius set up hisheadquarters in Damascus and promised to make Herod king of Judea inreturn for his support against Caesar’s heir, Octavian. In 42BC Mark Antony defeated Cassius. Meanwhile, Herod maintained law andorder in Judea, for which the people were genuinely grateful, but hecontinued to struggle with the Sanhedrin, which made unsuccessfulattempts to have him removed.

In40 BC Persia took the opportunity presented by Rome’s civilwars to invade Judea, entering into alliance with the last Hasmonean,Antigonus. Herod fled while Antigonus was taken to Persia. Herodreturned to Palestine in 38 BC with Roman troops and quickly capturedGalilee and Jerusalem. With the execution of Antigonus, the Hasmoneandynasty was finished. Herod then married Mariamne, the niece ofAntigonus, hoping that this would give him some legitimacy as king ofJudea and win him some popular support.

ThePharisees continued to reject him as a non-Jewish collaborator withthe Romans. When the last male heir of the Hasmonean dynasty died (25BC), Herod’s mother-in-law, Alexandra, forced Herod to appointher sixteen-year-old son, Aristobulus, as high priest. After the boydrowned in Herod’s swimming pool, Alexandra had Herod calledbefore Mark Antony for trial. He was exonerated.

WhenOctavian and Mark Antony went to war, Herod was caught in the middle.Herod’s enemies, with Cleopatra’s support, attacked butwere driven back. With Antony’s defeat and the death ofCleopatra, Herod went to Rhodes to reassure Octavian (CaesarAugustus) of his loyalty and was confirmed again as king of Judea.Upon his return, he accused his wife of adultery, and she waspromptly executed, followed shortly by her mother.

Herodthen went on a building spree of enormous proportions extendingbeyond the borders of Judea, attempting to impress both his subjectsand Caesar. He built temples for Caesar and also started work on amassive renovation and rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem. As hiswives and sons began to position themselves to inherit the throne, hebecame fearful of assassination and had many of his family executed.

Heroddied in 4 BC. His execution of the infant boys of Bethlehem (Matt.2:16–18) was one of the last acts of his reign, consistent withhis increasingly desperate attempts to keep the throne.

There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.

Sinin the Bible

OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.

InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).

Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).

NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

Definitionand Terminology

Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.

Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.

1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).

2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.

3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).

4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).

Metaphors

Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.

Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).

Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).

Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).

Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).

Scopeand Consequences

Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.

Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).

Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.

Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.

Conclusion

Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”

A person who studies the stars and their supposed effect onhuman personality and history. Such individuals were well known inboth Mesopotamia and Egypt, though the former is more represented inthe biblical texts.

Inseveral places the OT prophets either ridicule or attack astrologersand their practice (Isa. 47:13; Dan. 2:27; 4:7; 5:7, 11; Amos 5:26),and the practice is strictly forbidden in the law codes (Deut. 4:19).Although there are several texts that may apply to astrology in theNT, the only explicit mention of the practice is in connection withthe magi (Matt. 2) and Simon, Bar-jesus, and Elymas (Acts 8:9; 13:6,8). However, in light of admonitions against astrology and the factthat it is an affront to faith in God, the birth narrative of Jesusshould not be read as an approval of the practice but rather as anextraordinary event in which the heavens themselves proclaim thecoming of the one born “king of the Jews” (Matt. 2:2).

A “type” (from Gk. typos) can be defined as abiblical event, person, or institution that serves as an example orpattern for events, persons, or institutions in the later OT or inthe NT. Typology is based on the assumption that there is a patternin God’s work in the OT and in the NT that forms apromise-fulfillment relationship. In the OT there are shadows ofthings that will be more fully revealed in the NT. Thus, the OT flowsinto the NT as part of a continuous story of salvation history. Whatis promised in the OT is fulfilled in the NT. This can beaccomplished through prophetic word or through propheticaction/event. The use of prophetic action/event to predict orforeshadow future actions/events involves typology. Typology is partof the promise-fulfillment scheme that connects the two Testaments.

Anumber of biblical interpreters note that three primarycharacteristics of types can be identified. First, there must be somenotable point of resemblance or analogy between the type and itsantitype. Second, there must be evidence that the type was appointedby God to represent the thing typified. Here one must avoid the twoextremes of, on the one hand, saying that a type is a type only whenthe Scripture explicitly calls it such, and, on the other hand, offinding a type “behind every tree.” Third, a type shouldprefigure something in the future. Thus, antitypes in the NT mustpresent truth more fully realized than in the OT.

Typologicalinterpretation of the OT is different from allegorizing a text. Theformer restricts itself to the meaning intended by the originalauthor, whereas the latter reads things into the OT passage (usuallyin connection with messianic prophecy) not initially intended. On theother hand, it should be noted that the OT authors may not alwayshave fully comprehended the long-range fulfillment of theirprophecies. Thus, for example, Ps. 22 reveals King David’strials and tribulations that are later viewed by NT authors asapplicable to the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., the quotation of Ps.22:18 in John 19:24 regarding the soldiers casting lots for Jesus’clothes). David probably did not envision his situation as predictiveof the sufferings of the coming Christ. But the Holy Spirit did, andhe allowed the Gospel authors to make the connection. Thus, typologyis a special form of biblical prophecy, which Jesus seemed to useextensively. Hence, the type is found in the OT, and its antitypeoccurs in the NT.

Moreparticularly, Jesus seemed to perceive himself as the antitype to allthree of the aforementioned possible types. First, Jesus fulfilled inhimself persons in the OT who were types. Thus, Jesus is the ultimateDavid, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, the heavenly Son of Man ofDan. 7, and the Suffering Servant of Isa. 52:13–53:12. Second,with regard to famous OT events, Jesus reenacted the new exodus andpassed the test in the new wilderness wanderings (Matt. 4:1–11pars.), and then he proclaimed a new law from the mountain, as didMoses (Matt. 5–7). Third, Jesus revised or replaced OTinstitutions such as the sacrificial system and the feasts of Yahweh(most notably Passover) at his death, and at his resurrection hebecame the new temple of God.

TheNT continues Jesus’ typological interpretation of the OT,seeing in him the supreme antitype of OT symbolism. Thus, forexample, Paul sees Christ as the second Adam (Rom. 5:12–21),whose church is the new Israel, the eschatological people of God(1Cor. 10:1–13). Matthew perceives Jesus to be the newMoses (Matt. 1–10). Note the following comparisons:

Moses,the Old Testament Type vs. Jesus, Matthew’s Antitype to Moses:

Moseswas born to deliver his people. Jesus was born to save his people.

Pharoahtried to kill the infant Moses. Herod tried to kill the infant Jesus.

Moseswas “baptized” in the exodus. Jesus was baptized in thenew “exodus.”

Moseswas tempted in the wilderness. Jesus was tempted in the wildnerness.

Mosesperformed ten plagues. Jesus performed ten miracles.

Mosesreceived the law on the mount. Jesus gave a new law on the mount.

Lukeunderstands Jesus to be the new David (Luke 1:32). Hebrews assertsthat Jesus has inaugurated the new covenant (chap. 8), the truepriesthood (chaps. 7–8; 10), whose death is the fulfillment andreplacement of the sacrificial system of the OT (chaps. 9–10).But perhaps the most extensive usage of typology in the NT occurs inRev. 21–22 (cf. Rev. 19), where the new creation is theantitype of the old creation of Gen. 1–3 (see table 10).

Table10. New Creation Typology in Revelation 21–22

Sinfulpeople are scattered (Gen. 1-3). God’s people unite to singhis praises (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:6-7).

The“marriage” of Adam and Eve takes place in the garden(Gen. 1-3). The marriage of the second Adam and his bride, thechurch has come (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7, 21:2, 9).

Godis abandoned by sinful people (Gen. 1-3). God’s people (newJerusalem, bride of Christ) are made ready for God; marriage of theLamb. (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7-8, 21:2, 9-21).

Exclusionfrom bounty of Eden (Gen. 1-3). Invitation to marriage supper ofLamb (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:9).

Satanintroduces sin into world (Gen. 1-3). Satan and sin are judged (Rev.21-22; cf. 19:11-21, 20:7-10).

Theserpent deceives humankind (Gen. 1-3). The ancient serpent is bound“to keep him from deceiving the nations (Rev. 21-22; cf.20:2-3).

Godgives humans dominion over the earth (Gen. 1-3). God’s peoplewill reign with him forever (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4, 6, 22:5).

Peoplerebel against the true God, resulting in physical and spiritual death(Gen. 1-3). God’s people risk death to worship the true Godand thus experience life (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4-6).

Sinfulpeople are sent away from life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people havetheir names written in the book of life (Rev. 20:4-6, 15; 21:6, 27).

Deathenters the world (Gen. 1-3). Death is put to death (Rev. 20:14;21:4).

Godcreates the first heaven and earth, eventually cursed by sin (Gen.1-3). God creates a new heaven and earth, where sin is nowhere to befound (Rev. 21:1)/

Watersymbolizes chaos (Gen. 1-3). There is no longer any sea (Rev. 21:1).

Sinbrings pain and tears (Gen. 1-3). God comforts his people andremoves crying and pain (Rev. 21:4).

Sinfulhumanity is cursed with wandering (exile) (Gen. 1-3). God’speople are given a permanent home (Rev. 21:3).

Communityis forfeited (Gen. 1-3). Genuine community is experienced (Rev.21-22; cf. 21:3, 7).

Sinfulpeople are banished from the presence of God (Gen. 1-3). God livesamong his people (Rev. 21:3, 7, 22; 22:4).

Creationbegins to grow old and die (Gen. 1-3). All things are made new (Rev.21:5).

Wateris used to destroy wicked humanity (Gen. 1-3). God quenches thirstwith water from the spring of life (Rev. 21:6; 22:1).

“Inthe beginning, God…” (Gen. 1-3). “I am the Alphaand the Omega, the beginning and the end.” (Rev. 21:6).

Sinfulhumanity suffers a wandering exile in the land (Gen. 1-3). God giveshis children an inheritance (Rev. 21:7).

Sinenters the world (Gen. 1-3). Sin is banished from God’s city(Rev. 21:8, 27; 22:15).

Sinfulhumanity is separated from the presence of the holy God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people experience God’s holiness (cubed city = holyof holies) (Rev. 21:15-21).

Godcreates light and separates it from darkness (Gen. 1-3). No morenight or natural light; God himself is the source of light (Rev.21:23; 22:5)

Languagesof sinful humanity are confused (Gen. 1-3). God’s people is amulticultural people (Rev. 21:24, 26; 22:2).

Sinfulpeople are sent away from the garden (Gen. 1-3). The newheaven/earth includes a garden (Rev. 22:2).

Sinfulpeople are forbidden to eat from the tree of life (Gen. 1-3). God’speople may eat freely from the tree of life (Rev. 22:2, 14).

Sinresults in spiritual sickness (Gen. 1-3). God heals the nations(Rev. 22:2).

Sinfulpeople are cursed (Gen. 1-3). The curse is removed from redeemedhumanity, and people become a blessing (Rev. 22:3).

Sinfulpeople refuse to serve/obey God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people servehim (Rev. 22:3).

Sinfulpeople are ashamed in God’s presence (Gen. 1-3). God’speople will “see his face” (Rev. 22:4).

The traditional designation “virgin birth” refersto the supernatural conception of Jesus Christ by the Holy Spirit,apart from sexual relations. Technically, one should speak of a“virginal conception,” since Jesus was virginallyconceived but was born normally. The virgin “birth” isconsidered by some theologians to be the means by which the twonatures of Jesus Christ are preserved: his humanity stems from thefact that he was born of the virgin Mary, while his deity proceedsfrom the reality that God was his father and he was conceived by theHoly Spirit. The later Apostles’ Creed formulates the matterthis way: Jesus Christ “was conceived by the Holy Spirit andborn of the Virgin Mary.” Here, three aspects of the virginbirth are discussed: (1)the virgin birth and Isa. 7:14; (2)thevirgin birth in the NT; (3)the historicity of the virgin birth.

Isaiah7:14. Isaiah7:14 reads, “The virgin shall conceive and bear a son, andshall call his name Immanuel” (ESV). Two key issues areinvolved in Isaiah’s prophecy. First, should the Hebrew word’almahbe translated as “virgin” or as “young woman”?While the Hebrew term does not necessarily mean a virgin, but only ayoung woman of marriageable age, the Greek term parthenos used in theLXX of Isa. 7:14 and quoted in Matt. 1:23 has stronger connotationsof virginity. Second, when was Isa. 7:14 fulfilled? Most likely theOT text was partially fulfilled in Isaiah’s day (with referenceto King Ahaz’s unnamed son or to Isaiah’s sonMaher-Shalal-Hash-Baz [Isa. 8:1]) but found its ultimate fulfillmentin Jesus, as Matt. 1:23 points out.

NewTestament. Theinfancy narratives recorded in Matt. 1–2 and in Luke 1–2provide the story line for Jesus’ virginal conception: (1)Marywas a virgin engaged to Joseph (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:27, 34; 2:5);(2)she was found to be pregnant while still engaged to Joseph,a conception produced by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18, 20; Luke 1:35;cf. Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:34); (3)only after Jesus wasborn did Mary and Joseph have sexual relations (Matt. 1:24–25).Even though there is nothing in these narratives like the hypostaticunion formulated in the later church creeds, it is clear that Matthewand Luke in some way associate Jesus’ deity and humanity withthe virginal conception. Other NT texts are considered by some aspossible references to the virgin birth. John 1:14 states that “theWord became flesh,” which certainly highlights Jesus’ twonatures—deity and humanity—but does not therebyexplicitly mention the virgin birth. Paul does something similar inRom. 1:3 (“[God’s] Son, who as to his earthly life was adescendant of David”), Gal. 4:4 (“God sent his Son, bornof a woman”), and Phil. 2:6–11 (Jesus existed in the formof God but took on human likeness). Beyond these passages, there islittle else regarding the virgin birth stated or alluded to in theNT.

Historicity.Twoimportant considerations indicate that the virgin birth of Jesus wasa historical event and not a mythic legend. First, the simplicity ofthe descriptions of the birth narratives in Matthew and Luke, whencompared with the fantastic details found in contemporary accounts ofGreco-Roman and Jewish supernatural births, bespeak the authenticityof the NT documents. For example, one can cite the stories of thesupernatural birth of Alexander the Great in Greek sources and ofNoah in extrabiblical Jewish sources. In addition, secondary detailssuch as the mention of Anna’s father, Phanuel (Luke 2:36), addnothing significant to the account and thus appear to bematter-of-fact reporting by an eyewitness. Second, the commonalitiesbetween Matthew and Luke regarding the virgin birth of Jesus attestto its historicity.

Inconclusion, while the NT does not contain extensive informationconcerning the virgin birth of Jesus, there is sufficient evidence tosupport its historicity.

A divine communication in the form of visual imagery, usuallyaccompanied by words, and often using symbols that requireexplanation and spur reflection about God’s otherwiseimperceptible presence and activity. Presumably, the recipient “sees”the vision as an event of inward perception, often within a dreamduring sleep or in a divinely induced state of ecstasy (Gen. 15; Dan.7:1; 10:1–9; 2Cor. 12:1–4). Characteristically,visions entail conversation with God or an angelic representative,often following a question-and-answer format (Dan. 7:15–28;Zech. 1:8–15, 18–21). The visionary is actually in thescene as direct observer and active participant (Dan. 8:1–2).

Propheticvisions are meant to be retold. For example, imagery is accompaniedby the authentication of divine commissioning (Isa. 6; Ezek.1:1–3:15; Rev. 10), leading to announcement of judgment (Jer.1:4–19). This close conjunction of image and word (1Sam.3:21) is reinforced by statements about a prophet “seeing”God’s word (e.g., Mic. 1:1 ESV, NRSV, NASB) and about propheticbooks as collections of visions (2Chron. 32:32; Nah. 1:1).Vision reports join oracles and other forms of prophetic speech asessential features of these works. Visions contribute to thecommunity’s spiritual well-being (Prov. 29:18; Ezek. 7:26), butnot always (Lam. 2:14; Ezek. 13; Zech. 13:4; Col. 2:18).

Visionsdrive the narrative surrounding Jesus’ birth (Matt. 1:18–2:23;Luke 1:1–2:20). The baptism of Jesus includes a visionaryelement, the Holy Spirit’s anointing of Jesus for his ministry,accompanied by the Father’s word (Matt. 3:16–17; Mark1:10–11; Luke 3:22; John 1:32–33). Jesus’transfiguration is comparable (Matt. 17:1–9; Mark 9:2–10;Luke 9:28–36). Visions mark key transition points in thenarrative of Acts (e.g., chaps. 9–11). The book of Revelationopens with a vision of the Son of Man (1:9–20) and isstructured around three vision cycles of judgment interspersed withvisions of heaven meant to bolster the readers’ faithfulness.